THALHEIMER'S 


.0 


o 


RAL  HISTORY 


EYISED  EDITION 


N-ANTWERP.-.BRAGGiSSCO, 

GIKCIXSAT1.--&:  NEW.-.  YORK- 


^\V»3ITY  Of 
tMtfOAUA 


EBUCATIOU  LIBR. 


AN    OUTLINE 


OF 


GENERAL  HISTORY 


%nti  Qm  %u  of  f  tl^aob 


REVISED  EDITION 


M.  E.  THALHEIMER 

Author  of  "  A  Manual  of  Ancient  History,"  ".4  Manual  of  Meditn'al  and 

Modern  History"   "  A  History  of  England"  "  The  Eclectic  History 

of  the   United  States,"  etc. 

JOHN  S.  PRELL 

OtHl  &  Mechanical  Engineer. 

SAN  FRANCISCO^  CAK 

VAN  ANTWERP,  BRAGG  cTcO. 
Cincinnati  New  York 


THALHEIMER'S  HISTORICAL  SERIES. 


Eclectic  History  of  the  United  States. 
History  of  England. 
General  History. 
Ancient  History. 
Easterfi  Empires  {separate). 
History  of  Greece  {separate). 
History  of  Rome  {separate). 
Mediceval  and  Modern  History. 


Copyright 

1883 

BY  Van  Antwerp,  Bragg  &  Co. 


(^ilMfl^^^^^^ 


Eclectic  Press 

Van  Antwerp,  Bragg  &  Co. 

Cincinnati 


GSFT 


02/ 

EDUC 
LIBRARY 


PREFACE 


In  the  Outline  of  General  History,  as  presented  to  the 
public  nearly  six  years  ago,  the  aim  was  to  combine  the  ex- 
treme of  brevity  with  a  lively  and  simple  narrative,  such  as 
might  supply  the  present  need  of  young  scholars,  while  af- 
fording a  symmetrical  plan  for  the  research  of  older  ones. 

It  was  felt  that  much  labor  was  left  to  the  teacher  in  filling 
up  the  outline  thus  offered;  but  the  author  has  had  the  satis- 
faction of  knowing  that  the  book,  in  its  several  editions,  has 
been  both  ably  and  successfully  used. 

In  the  present  enlarged  edition,  much  of  the  needed  sup- 
plementary matter  has  been  added  in  the  form  of  notes  upon 
each  chapter.  The  selection  from  such  a  wealth  of  material 
has  of  course  been  a  matter  of  difficulty,  and  it  is  not  to  be 
supposed  that  a  perfect  proportion  has  been  attained.  It  is 
hoped,  however,  that  the  more  practical  aim  has  been  meas- 
urably reached, — of  contributing  somewhat  to  the  conven- 
ience of  teachers  and  the  profit  of  pupils. 

References  to  authorities  have  been  multiplied,  and  the 
quotations,  though  necessarily  brief,  may  serve  as  guides  to  a 
more  extensive  reading  of  the  works  from  which  they  are 
taken. 

mi) 

672 


IV  PREFACE. 


The  Maps  and  Engravings  are  the  same  as  in  previous 
editions,  of  which  they  constituted  an  important  part  of  the 
value. 

Cordial  thanks  are  due  to  several  distinguished  teachers, 
who,  from  their  experience  in  the  actual  use  of  the  book,  have 
contributed  valuable  suggestions  for  the  correction  of  the 
plates. 

Grateful  for  the  favor  with  which  the  Outline  of  General 
History  has  already  been  received,  the  author  commends  it 
anew  to  the  candid  judgment  of  teachers,  hoping  that  to 
their  pupils  this  revised  and  enlarged  edition  may  convey 
some  hint,  however  inadequate,  of  the  wealth  of  historical 
literature  that  awaits  their  perusal,  and  of  the  fullness  of  life 
in  the  ages  of  which  they  are  the  heirs. 


Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  | 

I-  f 


April,  1883. 


CONTENTS 


Introduction Page  7 

BOOK  I.— THE  ANCIENT  WORLD. 
PART  I. —  Nations  of  Asia  and  Africa. 

Chapter  Pag* 
I.     Dispersion  of  Races  —  Chaldoea,  Assyria,  Media,  and 

Babylonia 9 

II.     Smaller  Asiatic  States — Phoenicia,  Syria,  and  Asia 

Minor       ........  ^9 

III.  The  Hebrews 25 

IV.  The  Medo- Persian  Empire          .         .          .         .         .  3^ 
V.     African  States  and  Colonies       .....  42 


PART  II.  —  Hellenic  States. 

their  Religion 


VI.  Earliest  History  of  the  Greeks 

VII,  Sparta  and  Athens     ...... 

VIII.  The  Persian,  Peloponnesian,  and  Corinthian  Wars 

IX.  Greek  Literature,  Philosophy,  and  Art     . 

X.  Alexander  the  Great  ..... 

XI.  Successors  of  Alexander     ..... 


52 
63 
70 

84 
94 
99 


PART  III.  — Rome. 

XII.  The  Roman  Kingdom  —  Its  Religion 

XIII.  The  Roman  Republic  —  Samnite  Wars 

XIV.  The  Roman  Republic,  Continued  —  Punic  Wars 
XV.  "  ♦♦  "  Civil  Wars 

XVI.  The  Roman  Empire 
XVII.  «♦  "      Continued 

XVIII.  The  Northern  Barbarians 


106 
112 
121 
129 
140 
150 
158 


(V) 


vi 


CONTENTS. 


BOOK  II.— MEDIAEVAL  HISTORY. 
Introduction Page  167 


Chapter 

I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 
V. 


VI. 
VII. 

VIII. 

IX. 

X. 

XI. 

XII. 

XIII. 


PART  I.— The  Dark  Ages. 

Settlements  of  the  Northern  Tribes 

The  Roman  Empire  in  the  East 

The  Saracens      .         . 

The  Western  Empire  Restored 

The  Northmen  .... 


PART  II.— The  Middle  Ages 

The  Crusades     ...... 

Guelfs  and  Ghibellines  —  Rise  of  Italian  and  German 

Cities 
The  Tartar  Conquests 
Plantagenets  in  England    . 
House  of  Capet  in  France 
The  Empire  and  the  Church 
Languages  and  Literature 
Dawn  of  the  Modern  Era 


Page 
169 

174 
178 
184 
194 


203 

213 
220 

225 

234 
242 
247 
253 


BOOK  III.— MODERN  HISTORY. 

I.  The  French  in  Italy 263 

II.  Charles  V.  and  the  Reformation  — The  Turks           .  270 

III.  House  of  Orleans  in  France 280 

IV.  The  Tudors  in  England    ......  287 

V,  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic      .         .         .         .         .  298 

VI.  The  Stuarts  in  Great  Britain 306 

VIL  The  House  of  Austria  and  the  Thirty  Years'  War    .  320 

VIII.  European  Colonies     .......  328 

IX.  The  Northern  Kingdoms 336 

X.  The  Bourbons  in  France             .....  348 

XI.  Great  Britain  under  the  House  of  Brunswick    .         .  360 

XII.  British  Empire  in  the  East 372 

XIII.  The  French  Revolution 379 

XIV.  Absolutists  and  Liberals  in  Europe            .         .         .  395 
XV.  The  Second  French  Empire 404 

XVI.  American  Affairs        .         .         .         .         .         .         .  419 


OUTLINES  OF  UNIVERSAL  HISTORY. 


INTRODUCTION. 


1.  From  the  earliest  known  times,  men  have  been 
divided  into  two  classes  —  those  who,  wandering  from 
place  to  place,  lived  upon  the  wild  products  of  the  earth, 
or  upon  the  milk  and  flesh  of  their  herds;  and  those 
who,  preferring  settled  abodes,  built  cities  and  villages, 
and  increased  their  wealth  by  mining,  tillage,  mechanical 
arts,  and   commerce. 

2.  The  first  settled  communities  could  only  exist  near 
great  rivers,  where  the  fertile  soil  aflbrded  plenty  of  food, 
as  in  the  valleys  of  the  Ganges,  Indus,  Tigris,  Euphrates, 
and  Nile;  while  beyond  the  great  mountain  barrier  which 
divides  central  from  southern  Asia,  roamed  the  ancient 
Scythians,  ancestors  of  fierce  and  wandering  tribes,  which 
frequently  burst  their  bounds,  carrying  ruin  to  the  rich 
cities  and  harvest  fields  of  the  southern  plains.  With  the 
progress  of  the  world,  the  7iomadic  or  wandering  races 
have  become  fewer,  and  the  civilized  more  numerous; 
but  to  this  day  the  steppes  of  central  Asia  are  occupied 
by  roving  tribes. 

3.  History  begins  with  the  formation  of  settled  com- 
munities. Other  sciences  deal  with  man  as  an  animal, 
or  classify  the  several  races  according  to  their  languages, 
habitations,  and   use   of  metals.      History  has    to   do  with 

(7) 


8  INTR  OD  UCTIOlSr. 


civilized  man,  and  describes  the  raids  of  barbarians  only  as 
it  tells  of  earthquakes  and  floods  which  have  overthrown 
his  dwellings  and  destroyed  his  wealth. 

4.  The  populous  communities  of  India,  China,  and 
Japan  —  though  they  contributed  their  jewels,  spices,  per- 
fumes, and  silken  garments  to  the  luxury  of  the  western 
Asiatics  —  were  so  little  known  to  the  Greek  and  Roman 
writers,  that  they  also  are  beyond  the  range  of  ancient 
History.  We  have  only  to  tell  the  story  of  those  nations 
which,  through  their  art,  their  literature,  or  their  laws, 
have  helped  to  make  our  modern  society  what  it  is. 

5.  History  is  divided  into  three  periods :  Ancient,  Me- 
diaeval, and  Modern. 

Ancient  History  describes  the  states  that  rose  and  fell 
in  western  Asia,  Africa,  and  Europe,  until  A.  D.  476,  when 
the  German  race  became  predominant  in  the  latter,  and 
overthrew  the  Roman  Empire   of  the  West. 

Mediaeval  History  covers  the  thousand  years  between 
the  breaking-up  of  the  old  order  and  the  establishment  of 
the  new.  It  tells  how  the  tribes  of  northern  barbarians 
grew  to  be  the  nations  of  modern  Europe,  and  ends  with 
the  fall  of  the  Eastern  Roman  Empire,  A.  D.  1453. 

The  opening  of  Modern  History  is  marked  by  the  revival 
of  learning,  the  multiplication  of  printed  books,  the  discov- 
ery of  America,  and  the  reformation  in  religion. 

Cuneiform  Characters. 


BOOK  I.— THE  ANCIENT  WORLD. 


PART  I. — Nations  of  Asia  and  Africa. 


CHAPTER  I. 


DISPERSION     OF    RACES  —  CHALD/EA,    ASSYRIA,    MEDIA,    AND 
BABYLONIA. 


Assyrian  War  Chariot. 

^^»^*HE  earliest  known  attempt  to  form  a  settled 
Wf\  community  was  made  by  the  sons  of  Noah, 
^^^  at  Babel,  after  the  Flood.  It  was  defeated  by 
the  Confusion  of  Tongues.  See  Gen.  xi  :  4-9.  The 
three  families  then  separated.  The  children  of  Japhet 
were  divided,  one  part  traveling  westward  by  many  paths 
into  Europe,  ^  while  another,  moving  eastward,  occupied  the 

(9) 


lo  THE  ANCIENT   WORLD, 

table-lands  of  Iran,  Bactria,  and  northern  India.  They 
were  the  parents  of  the  Indo-Germanic  or  Aryan  race, 
whose  active  intellect  has  made  it  the  leader  of  the  world 
in  art,  literature,  and  laws. 

7.  The  children  of  Shem  remained  upon  the  fertile 
plains  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates.  This  family  has  ever 
been  distinguished  for  intense  religious  feeling;  and  from 
its  ranks  came  the  Chosen  People,  to  whom  were  com- 
mitted the  written  revelations  of  God. 

Part  of  the  Hamites  moved  to  the  shores  of  the  Med- 
iterranean, and  established  the  great  empire  of  Egypt; 
while  Nimrod,  a  grandson  of  Ham,  built  Babylon,  and 
became  the  founder  of  the  Chaldaean  Kingdom^  south  of 
the  Euphrates.  The  Hamites  were  great  builders :  in 
Egypt  their  massive  pyramids  and  temples  have  proved 
almost  as  lasting  as  the  eternal  hills;  but  in  Chaldaea  the 
want  of  stone  compelled  them  to  use  a  more  perishable 
material.  Gen.  xi :  3.  From  the  clay  of  the  plain  and  a 
natural  bituminous  cement,  they  erected  buildings^  which 
were  the  wonders  of  the  ancient  world. 

8.  The  Chaldaeans  were  diligent  students  of  the  heavens, 
and  their  astronomical  records  date  from  the  twenty-third 
century  before  Christ.  They  were  the  inventors  of  writing, 
which  the  Phoenician  merchants  learned  from  them  and 
taught  to  the  rest  of  the  world.  In  writing,  as  in  build- 
ing, their  ingenuity  enabled  them  to  make  use  of  simple 
and  rude  materials;  their  wedge-shaped  letters  were  im- 
pressed, with  a  stick,  upon  tablets  or  cylinders  of  clay, 
which  were  afterward  either  baked  or  dried  in  the  sun. 
The  earhest  Chaldaean  literature,  so  far  as  it  has  yet  been 
read,  consists  chiefly  of  prayers,  hymns,  and  charms  against 
evil  spirits. 

9.  In  the  thirteenth  century  B.  C,  Chaldaea  was  ab- 
sorbed into  the  Semitic  Empire  of  Assyria.  This,  at  its 
greatest  extent,  reached   from   the   Nile   and   the   Mediter- 


ASSYAVAN  EMPIRE,  1 1 

ranean  on  the  west  to  the  mountains  of  Media  on  the 
east.  The  Assyrians  were  a  vigorous  nation,  *'all  mighty 
men ; "  and  their  kings  commonly  led  their  armies  in 
person,  sharing  the  hardships  of  night-marches  and  toil- 
some campaigns  among  the  mountains. 

a.  The  First  Period  of  Assyrian  history  begins  in  un- 
known antiquity,  and  ends  with  the  Conquest  of  Babylon 
by  Tiglathi-nin,  about  1250  B.  C. 

b.  The  Second  Period  extends  from  the  latter  event  to 
the  independence  of  Babylon,  about  745  B.  C. 

c.  The  Third  Period  comprises  the  New  or  Lower  Em- 
pire of  Assyria,  B.  C.  745-625. 

10.  Although  monuments,  lately  discovered,  give  com- 
plete lists  of  the  Assyrian  kings,  from  B.  C.  1850,  yet  we 
know  very  little  of  the  early  centuries  of  their  history.  It 
was  Tiglath-pileser  I  ( B.  C.  11 20-1 100)  who  made  As- 
syria the  foremost  nation  in  the  world.  It  declined  as 
the  Hebrew  monarchy  expanded,  but  became  powerful 
again  after  the  death  of  Solomon. 

11.  I'va-lush  IV,  or  Vul-nira'ri  (B.  C.  810-781),  was 
the  husband  of  Sam'mura'mit,  a  Babylonian  princess,  whom 
the  Greeks  called  Semiramis.  ^  Her  name  is  associated  with 
wonderful  stories  of  conquests  and  public  works.  But  these 
are  mere  fables  concerning  a  mythical  personage  who  lived, 
if  at  all,  500  years  earlier.  The  real  power  and  wealth 
of  Sammuramit  'entitled  her  to  a  mention  in  Assyrian  an- 
nals—  an  honor  accorded  to  no  other  woman.  There  is 
some  reason  to  believe  that  during  this  joint  reign  of  Iva- 
lush  and  Sammuramit,  the  Hebrew  prophet  Jonah  preached 
repentance  to  the  Ninevites.  If  so,  it  was  Iva-lush  him- 
self who  laid  aside  his  royal  robes  and  sat  in  sack-cloth 
and  ashes.  (Jonah,  iii  and  iv.)  Forty  years  of  humiliation 
followed,  and  the  subject  province  of  Babylon  became  not 
only  independent  but  for  a  few  years  supreme. 


12  THE  ANCIENT  WORLD. 

12.  Tiglath-pileser  II  ( B.  C.  745-727)  was  the  founder 
of  the  New  or  Lower  Assyrian  Empire.  He  extended  his 
dominion  to  the  Mediterranean,  and  received  tribute  from 
all  the  kings  of  Syria  and  Palestine.  Tyre,  the  richest 
maritime  city  in  the  world,  paid  three  tons  of  gold  into 
his  treasury.  He  and  his  successors  removed  thousands 
of  captive  Israelites  to  Media  and  the  river  Gozan,  filling 
their  places  with  Babylonians.  (Read  2  Kings  xv :  29, 
and  xvii:  4-6,  24-33.). 

13.  Sargon  (B.  C.  721-705)  was  one  of  the  greatest 
Assyrian  kings.  He  defeated  the  Egyptians  and  Philis- 
tines in  the  great  battle  of  Raphia,^and  afterward  annexed 
Babylon  to  his  empire.  His  son  Sennach'erib  (B.  C.  705- 
680)  gained  many  victories  over  Phoenicians,  Philistines, 
Egyptians,  and  Ethiopians.  He  took  "all  the  fenced 
cities  of  Judah,"  and  insolently  threatened  Jerusalem. 
But  his  pride  was  humbled  by  the  sudden  destruction  of 
185,000  of  his  soldiers,  and  he  had  to  abandon  most  of 
his  western  conquests.     (2  Kings  xviii :  13-21,  and  xix.). 

14.  E'sarhad'don  (B.  C.  680-667)  conquered  Babylonia, 
Egypt,  and  Arabia;  and  his  son  As'shur-ba'ni-pal  raised  the 
empire  to  its  greatest  power  and  glory.  He  built  many 
temples,  and  the  finest  of  Assyrian  palaces.  He  also 
collected  a  great  library  of  clay  tablets,  inscribed  with  the 
records*  of  former  kings,  their  letters,  treaties,  and  laws; 
discourses  on  mathematics,  geography,  and  natural  history; 


*  These  kings'  own  words  prove  all  that  the  Hebrew  prophets 
wrote  of  their  cruelty,  not  less  than  of  their  splendor  and  power. 
One  of  them  thus  describes  his  treatment  of  a  conquered  city: 
"The  men,  young  and  old,  I  took  prisoners:  of  some  I  cut  off  the 
feet  and  hands;  of  others  I  cut  off  the  noses,  ears,  and  lips:  of 
the  young  men's  ears  I  made  a  heap;  of  the  old  men's  heads  I 
built  a  tower.  I  exposed  their  heads  as  a  trophy  in  front  of  their 
city.  The  children  I  burnt  in  the  flames.  The  city  I  destroyed 
and  consumed  and  burnt  in  the  fire." 


DESTRUCTION  OF  NINEVEH.  13 

directions   for  worship,   and   primeval   tradirions.      Among 
the  latter  is  the  Chaldaean  story  of  the  Deluge,  coinciding 

in    many   important    points   with    that   which   we    have    in 
the   Bible. 

15.  The  glory  of  Asshur-bani-pal  was  quickly  followed 
by  ruin  under  his  successor.  A  wild  horde  of  Scythians 
(§2)  j)lundered  the  Assyrian  cities;  Media  and  Babylonia 
revolted;  Nineveh  was  besieged  and  taken,  its  king  was 
slain,  and  his  dominions  were  divided  between  the  con- 
cjuerors,  B.  C.  625.  The  great  cities  of  Assyria  long  lay 
in  ruins:  even  the  Greeks  could  only  point  to  heaps  of 
rubbish,  under  which  Nineveh,  Calah,  and  Resen  were  sup- 
posed to  be  buried.  In  late  years,  many  of  these  mounds 
have  been  explored,  and  the  magnificent  palaces  of  Sargon, 
Sennacherib,  and  their  successors,  have  contributed  their 
sculptures  to  the  adornment  of  European  museums,  and 
their  inscriptions  to  our  hitherto  scanty  knowledge  of  the 
primitive  eastern  nations. 

16.  Media. —  B.  C.  633-558.  The  two  allies  who  had 
put  an  end  to  the  Assyrian  Empire,  were  of  very  different 
rank.  Media,  a  rough  country  south  of  the  Caspian  Sea, 
was  inhabited  by  Aryan  tribes,  which  had  claimed  inde- 
pendence of  Assyria  but  little  more  than  a  century.  The 
founder  of  Median  greatness,  who  first  united  these  tribes 
into  one  kingdom,  was  Cyax'ares,  the  joint-conqueror  of 
Nineveh  with  Nabopolas'sar.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the 
first  Asiatic  who  properly  organized  an  army,  separating 
cavalry,  spearmen,  and  archers  into  distinct  companies. 
Under  his  reign,  and  that  of  his  son  Asty'ages,  Media  rose 
rapidly  in  wealth  and  importance.  Extreme  luxury  took 
the  place  of  rude  manners  and  simple  dress;  and  their 
passion  for  hunting  was  all  that  remained  of  the  hardy 
Medes  in  the  jeweled  courtiers  of  King  Astyages.  At  this 
point  the  Persians,  a  kindred  but  subject  nation,  gained  the 
supremacy,  by  reason  of  their  brave  and  manly  character. 


14 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD. 


Map  1 


17.  Babylonia. —  Babylon,  on  the  contrary,  was  the 
seat  of  one  of  the  oldest  Asiatic  states,  long  celebrated 
for  wealth,  luxury,  and  learning.  The  wonderful  clear- 
ness of  the  air  over  the  plain  of  the  Euphrates  early 
attracted  attention  to  a  study  of  the  stars.  Observations 
were  carefully  recorded,  and  tables  still  existing  prove  the 
painstaking  skill  of  the  Babylonian  astronomers.  They 
measured  time  by  sun-dials,  and  were  the  inventors  of 
other  astronomical  instruments. 

18.  After  his  country  had  been  for  500  years  subject 
to  the  Assyrian  Empire  (§  9.  b.),  Nabonas'sar,  a  Baby- 
lonian general,  set  up  an  independent  kingdom.  But  the 
fifth  king  of  his  line  was  taken  captive  by  Sargon  (§  13); 
and  for  nearly  a  century  the  country  was  again  ruled  by 
Assyrian  viceroys,  though  always  ready  to  revolt.  Fearing 
a  double  attack,  from  the  north  and  south,  which  had 
been  planned  by  the  Medes,  the  last  Assyrian  king  sent 
his  general,  Nabopolas'sar,  to  defend  Babylon.  But  Nabo- 
polassar  turned  traitor;  he  allied  himself  with  Cyaxares, 
and    led    a    Babylonian    army   to    the    siege    of    Nineveh 


NED  UCHA'DNEZZAR,  1 5 

(v:^i6).  In  the  division  of  the  spoils,  which  followed  the 
<  apture  of  the  great  city,  Nabopolassar  received  Susiana, 
Babylonia,  and  Chaldo^a,  with  all  Syria  even  to  the  bor- 
ders of  Egypt;  while  Assyria  proper  was  added  to  the 
dominion  of  Cyaxares. 

19.  B.  C.  604-561.  Nebuchadnez'zar,  the  second  Baby- 
lonian king  of  this  line,  was  one  of  the  greatest  monarchs 
whom  the  whole  world  has  seen.  By  his  victories  over 
Egypt,  Phoenicia,  and  Palestine,  he  reigned  from  the  Med 
iterranean  to  the  Indus.  The  royal  descendants  of  David 
ate  the  bitter  bread  of  captivity  at  his  table  in  Babylon 
(2  Kings  xxiv  :  10-16,  and  xxv  :  6,  7,  27-30).  He  adorned 
his  capital  with  the  celebrated  Hanging  Gardens,  and  pro- 
tected it  by  walls  of  enormous  thickness,  while  he  en- 
riched the  whole  country  by  canals  and  reservoirs,  which 
distributed  the  waters  of  the  Euphrates  over  its  vast  and 
fertile  plain. 

20.  Babylonia  became  preeminent  in  industrial  arts; 
and  merchants  from  all  parts  of  the  world  thronged  her 
markets.  There  they  found  delicate  muslins  and  linens, 
and  magnificent  carpets  from  the  Babylonian  looms,  as 
well  as  fine  wool  from  Cashmere;  pearls  from  the  Persian 
Gulf;  diamonds  and  perfumes  from  India;  bronzes  and 
musical  instruments  from  Phoenicia.  The  amazing  fertility 
of  the  Babylonian  soil — probably  the  richest  on  the  globe 
—  afforded  abundance  of  barley  and  dates  for  even  the 
poorest  people,  while  the  rich  enjoyed  every  luxury  which 
the  ancient  world  could  boast. 

21.  At  the  height  of  his  grandeur,  Nebuchadnezzar  was 
suddenly  cast  out  from  the  society  of  men,  and  for  seven 
years  fed  with  beasts.  His  pride  being  humbled,  his 
reason  returned;  and,  acknowledging  the  supremacy  of  the 
Most  High,  he  resumed  the  ** excellent  majesty"  of  his 
kingly  state  (Daniel  iv :  24-36).  After  a  reign  of  43  years, 
Nebuchadnezzar  died,  and  with  him  ended  the  real  great- 


i6 


THE  ANCIENT    WORLD. 


ness  of  his  kingdom.  Under  Nabona'dius,  the  fourth  of 
his  successors,  and  the  crown-prince  Belshaz'zar,  Babylon 
was  taken  by  Cyrus,  B.  C.  538,  and  its  whole  territory  was 
added  to  the  Medo-Persian  Empire. 

Describe,  from  Map  I,  the  Rivers  Tigris,  Euphrates,  Nile. 

Point  out  Chaldgea,  Babylonia,  Media,  Assyria.  Nineveh,  Baby- 
lon, Raphia. 

Read  Daniel  i-v.  Jeremiah  xxvii :  5-8.  Rawlinson's  Five  Ancient 
Eastern  Monarchies.  Herodotus,  Volume  I.  Heeren's  Asiatic  Re- 
searches. 


Children  of  Shem. 

Children  of  Ham. 

Children  of  Japhet. 

Assyrians 

Chaldaeans 

\ 

\ 

Hindus 

Asiatic  Aryans 

Medes  and 

Persians 

Bactrians. 

Hebrews 

Phoenicians  * 

'  Greeks 
Romans 

European  Aryans 

■  Celts, 
Germans 

Arabs 

Egyptians 

.  Slavonians. 

*The  language  of  the  Phoenicians  was  Semitic,  though  they  were 
descended  from  Canaan,  son  of  Ham. 


NOTES. 

1.  These  great  migrations  occurred  some  centuries  before  the  begin- 
nings of  connected  history.  Their  order  may  be  traced  by  comparing 
the  languages  of  the  several  nations,  and  the  names  they  gave  to 
mountains  and  rivers  on  their  routes.  Thus  the  Ap-en-nines  and  the 
Cevennes  are  naeraorials  of  the  same  people  that  named  Ben  Lomond 
and  Ben  Nevis.    These  were  the  Celts,  who  at  one  time  occupied  a  great 

gart  of  Central  and  Western  Europe,  and  were  the  ancestors  of  the 
retons  of  France,  as  well  as  of  the  inhabitants  of  Ireland,  Wales,  Corn- 
wall, and  the  Highlands  of  Scotland.    Prof.  Fiske  says: 

"In  very  recent  times  — probably  not  more  than  twenty  centuries 
before  Christ— Europe  was  invaded  by  a  new  race  of  men,  coming  from 
Central  Asia.  These  were  the  Aryans,  a  race  tall  and  massive  in  stat- 
ure .  .  .  with  round  and  broad  skulls,  with  powerful  jaws  and  promi- 


NOTES.  17 


nont  eyo-brows,  with  faces  ruthcr  Hqunro  or  angulnr  than  ovnl,  with 
fair,  ruddy  comploxlons  and  bUio  oyos,  and  ro<l  or  flaxen  hair.  Of  thoRc, 
the  oarlip'st  that,  caino  may  porliaps  have  boon  tho  Latin  trlbos,  with 
tho  IKirlans  and  lonlans;  but  tho  lli'st  that  inado  their  way  throuKh 
Western  Kuropo  to  tho  shoros  of  tlio  Atlantic  \\vn\  the  (tael  or  true 
Celt^s.  After  these  oanie  the  Cyniry;  then  tho  Teutons;  and  Ilinilly— In 
very  reoent  times,  near  the  lx»KlnnlnK"f  tlio  Christian  era— tho  Slavs, 
These  Aryan  InvjMlors  wore  furtlier  atlvaneed  In  civilization  than  the 
Iberians,  who  had  so  Iour  inhaljlted  Europe.  They  understood  tho  arts 
whlcii  the  latter  understood,  and,  besides  all  this,  they  had  learned 
how  to  work  metals;  and  their  inviuslon  of  Kurope  marks  the  bcRln- 
nln«  of  what  arclueolo«lsts  call  the  Bronze  Age,  when  t<M>lsand  weapons 
were  no  longer  mmle  of  pollshe<l  stones,  but  were  wrought  from  an 
alloy  of  copper  and  tin.  The  great  blonde  Aryans  evory-whero  over- 
came the  small  brunette  Iberians;  but  Instead  of  one  race  exteniiinating 
or  expelling  the  other,  the  two  races  every  where  became  conunin^led 
In  various  proportions.  In  Greece,  southern  Italy,  Spain,  and  southern 
France,  where  the  Iberians  were  most  numerous  as  compared  with  the 
Aryan  invaders,  the  people  are  still  mainly  small  in  stature  and  dark 
In  complexion.  In  Russia  and  Scandinavia,  where  there  were  very  few 
Iberians,  the  people  show  the  purity  of  their  Aryan  descent  in  their  fair 
complexion  and  large  stature;  while  In  northern  Italy  and  northern 
France,  In  Germany  and  the  British  Islands,  the  Iberian  and  Aryan 
statures  and  complexions  are  Intermingled  in  eudles.s  variety,  "—Jo^n 
Fiske,  in  AlkitUic  MoiUhly,  May,  1882. 

2.  The  three  great  men  of  the  earliest  Chaldrean  Empire  were  Nim- 
rod,  the  founder;  Urukh,  the  builder;  and  Chedor-laomer,  the  conqueror. 
The  latter,  "having  extended  his  dominion  over  Babylonia  and  the  ad- 
joining regions,  marched  an  army  a  distance  of  1200  miles,  from  the 
shores  of  the  Tei-sian  (Julf  to  the  Dead  Sea,  and  held  Palestine  and  Syria 
in  subjection  for  twelve  years,  thus  effecting  conquests  which  were  not 
again  made  from  the  same  quarter  till  the  time  of  Nebuchadnezzar, 
fifteen  or  sixteen  hundred  years  afterwards."  He  is  "the  forerunner 
and  prototype  of  all  those  great  Oriental  conquerors  who,  from  time  to 
time,  have  built  up  vivst  empires  In  Asia,  out  of  heterogeneous  materi- 
als, which  have,  In  a  longer  or  shorter  space,  succes-sively  crumbled  to 
decay."— i2ea<i  Gen.  xlv.    Rarvlinson's  ^'■Ancient  Eastern  Monarchics.^^ 

Beside  the  brief  mention  in  the  Bible,  the  only  authorities  for  this 
early  perhxi  are  the  inscriptions  stamped  on  bricks,  belonging  to  widely 
separated  periods,  and  the  fragments  of  the  three  books  of  Berosus, 
which  were  doubtless  made  from  records  existing  in  his  time. 

Berosus  was  a  priest  of  Bel,  and  was  living  in  Babylon  at  the  time 
of  its  conquest  by  Alexander  (^162).  He  wrote  in  Greek;  his  works  are 
known  only  by  the  quotations  from  them  in  Eusebius  and  other  his- 
torians, but  these  have  been  strikingly  verified  by  inscriptions  brought 
to  light  within  a  few  years.  His  story  of  the  Deluge  is  the  same  as  the 
one  found  on  Assyrian  tablets.  His  table  of  Babylonian  Dynasties  is 
perhaps  the  most  valuable  of  the  fragments.  The  number  of  years  as- 
signed to  the  first  dyntusty,  is,  of  course,  not  to  be  believed  any  more 
than  the  still  wilder  statement  that  the  432,000  years  preceding  the  del- 
uge comprised  the  reigns  of  only  ten  kings.  The  last  of  these  kings 
was  Sisuthrus,  the  hero  of  the  flood. 

The  following  is  the  order  of  Dynasties  after  the  Deluge,  according 
to  Berosus: 


kings    reigned 


I'ersian  Conquest 638. 

3.  Of  the  buildings  of  ancient  Babylon,  now  to  be  seen  only  in  rains. 
Prof.  Rawllnson  says:  "Rude  and  inartificial  in  their  idea  and  general 
eonstructlon,  without  architectural  embellishment,  without  variety,  with- 
HisU-2. 


I  86 

Chaldeean 

II    8 

Median 

III  11 

Chaldoean 

IV  49 

Chaldtean 

V    9 

Arabian 

VI  45 

Assyrian 

VII    8 

Assvrian 

VIII    6 

Chahhean 

34,080 

years 

224 

commencing  B.  C.  2458. 

258 

" 

'mi. 

4,58 

t( 

1076. 

245 

«» 

"                      1518. 

528 

(( 

1273. 

122 

« 

"                       747. 

87 

" 

625. 

l8  THE  ANCIENT    WORLD. 


out  any  beauty  of  form,  they  yet  affect  men  by  their  mere  mass,  pro- 
ducing a  direct  impression  of  sublimity,  and  at  the  same  time  arousing 
a  sentiment  of  wonder  at  the  Indomitable  perseverance  which,  from 
materials  so  unpromising,  could  produce  such  gigantic  results.  In 
their  original  condition,  when  they  were  adorned  with  color,  with  a 
lavish  display  of  the  precious  metals,  with  pictured  representations  of 
human  life,  and  perhaps  with  statuary  of  a  rough  kind,  they  must 
have  added  to  the  impression  produced  by  size  a  sense  of  richness  and 
barbaric  magnificence.  The  African  spirit,  which  loves  gaudy  hues  and 
costly  ornament,  was  still  strong  among  the  Babylonians,  even  after 
they  had  been  Semitized;  and,  by  the  side  of  Assyria,  her  colder  and 
more  correct  northern  sister.  Babylonia  show^ed  herself  a  true  child  of 
the  South,— rich,  glowing,  careless  of  the  laws  of  taste,  bent  on  provok- 
ing admiration  by  the  dazzling  brilliancy  of  her  appearance."— ^nc. 
East.  Monarchies,  II,  557. 

4.  The  stories  of  the  mythical  Semiramis  were  told  by  the  Greek 
physician,  Ctesias,  who  heard  them  at  the  court  of  Artaxerxes  Mnemon 
(§58),  king  of  Persia.  Now  the  Persian  kings,  who  claimed  to  be  the 
heirs  of  the  Assyrian  Empire,  were  flattered  by  whatever  enhanced  the 
greatness  and  glory  of  their  predecessors.  They  were  quite  willing, 
therefore,  to  believe  that  Ninus,  the  supposed  founder  of  Nineveh,  and 
Semiramis,  the  reputed  builder  of  Babylon,  had  extended  their  joint 
sway  over  all  the  lands  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  Indus. 

F.  Lenormant  remarks  (in  Anc.  Hist,  of  the  East,  I,  367):  "Such  is  the 
legend  that  Ctesias  fii-st  related  to  the  Greeks.  We  repeat  that  there  is 
not  one  word  of  truth  in  it;  the  Assyrian  monuments  contradict  it  at 
all  points.  Such  personages  as  Ninus  and  Semiramis  belong  in  no  way 
to  real  history;  they  never  existed  in  fact.  Ninus,  as  the  name  clearly 
indicates,  is  only  a  personification  of  the  whole  history  of  the  city  of 
Nineveh,  and  of  all  its  power.  ...  So  all  the  useful  or  gigantic 
works,  whatever  their  origin,  executed  at  different  periods  by  various 
Asiatic  sovereigns  have  contributed  to  the  glory  of  the  name  of  Semir- 
amis. To  her  have  been  attributed  all  the  buildings  of  Babylon,  from 
the  Tower  of  Babel,  identical  with  tlie  Temple  of  Bel,  to  those  of  the 
age  of  Nebuchadnezzar  and  his  successors." 

Herodotus,  who  lived  B.  C.  484-408  (see  §150),  had  never  heard  of  the 
mythical  Semiramis,  but  he  mentions  a  real  queen  of  that  name  as 
having  "raised  magnificent  embankments  to  restrain  the  river  Eu- 
phrates, which,  till  then,  used  to  overflow  and  flood  the  whole  country 
around  Babylon."  This  was  the  Sammuramit  mentioned  in  the  text, 
who  seems  to  have  been  a  descendant  of  the  old  Babylonian  kings, 
married  to  a  king  of  Assyria,  who  had  thus  strengthened  his  authority 
over  the  discontented  provinces  in  the  Euphrates  Valley.  To  please 
them,  all  royal  acts  in  that  region  were  done  in  her  name.  The  his- 
torian above  quoted  calls  this  royal  pair,  "  the  Ferdinand  and  Isabella 
of  Mesopotamia."    See  §433. 

5.  Eaphia  was  on  the  coast  of  tlie  Mediterranean  Sea,  between  Gaza 
and  the  "River  of  Egypt."  The  battle  is  described  as  "the  first  com- 
bat between  the  two  great  powers  of  Asia  and  Africa."  Shebek  and 
the  Egyptian  forces  were  put  to  flight,  while  the  Philistine  prince  was 
carried  captive  to  Assyria.  "The  battle  of  Raphia  foreshadowed  truly 
enough  the  position  which  Egypt  would  hold  among  the  nations  from 
the  time  that  she  ceased  to  be  isolated,  and  was  forced  to  enter  upon 
the  struggle  for  preeminence,  and  even  for  existence,  with  the  great 
kingdoms  of  the  neighboring  continent.  With  rare  and  brief  excep- 
tions, Egypt  has,  from  the  time  of  Sargon,  succumbed  to  the  superior 
might  of  whatever  power  has  been  dominent  in  western  Asia,  owning 
it  for  lord,  and  submitting,  with  a  good  or  a  bad  grace,  to  a  position  in. 
volving  a  greater  or  less  degree  of  dependence.  Tributary  to  the  later 
Assyrian  princes,  and  again  probably  to  Nebuchadnezzar,  she  had 
scarcely  recovered  her  independence  when  she  fell  under  the  domin> 
ion  of  Persia.  Never  successful,  notwithstanding  all  her  struggles,  in 
thoroughly  shaking  off  this  hated  yoke,  she  did  but  exchange  her  Per- 
sian for  Greek  masters  when  the  empire  of  Cyrus  perished.  Since  then 
Greeks  [§  161],  Romans  [§  239],  Saracens  [§299],  and  Turks  [^18]  have  each, 
in  their  turn,  been  masters  of  the  Egyptian  race,  which  has  paid  the 
usual  penalty  of  precocity  in  the  early  exhaustion  of  its  powers."— i^aw- 
Unsori's  Anc.  E.  Mon.  Ill,  145. 


CIIAPTKR    II. 

SMALLER    ASIATIC    STATES. 


r^hcenicia. —  1  he  narrow  strip  of  land  between  Mt. 
Lebanon  and  the  sea  held  some  of  the  most  im- 
portant communities  of  early  times.  They  were  not  a 
nation,  but  a  mere  cluster  of  commercial  cities/  of  which 
Tyre  and  Sidon  were  the  chief.  Now  and  then  some 
great  danger  led  them  to  form  a  league ;  but  usually  they 
were  only  united  by  a  common  language  and  religion, 
each  city  having  its  king  or  judge,  who  was  also  its  high- 
priest.  The  name  Phcenicians  was  given  them  by  the 
Greeks.  They  called  themselves  Canaanites,  and  were  of 
the  same  race  as  the  tribes  expelled  or  conquered  by  the 
Hebrews. 

23.  The  importance  of  PhcKnicia  was  owing  to  her 
wonderful  maritime  enterprise.  The  Mediterranean  and 
western  Adantic,  the  Red  Sea,  Persian  Gulf,  and  Indian 
Ocean,  all  were  highways  for  her  ships,  and  their  coasts 
and  islands  were  dotted  with  her  colonies.  In  her  markets 
might  be  found  silver  from  Spain,  tin  from  Britain,  and 
amber  from  the  Baltic;  gold  and  apes  from  Africa;  pearls, 

(19) 


20  THE  ANCIENT  WORLD. 

rubies,  and  diamonds  frojn  India  and  Ceylon;  no  less 
than  engraved  seals  from  Babylon;  copper  and  horses 
from  Armenia;  oil,  honey,  and  balm  from  Palestine;  wine 
and  white  wool  from  Damascus;  lambs  and  kids  from  the 
the  Bedouin  Arabs;  and  embroidered  linen  from  Egypt. 
In  return,  the  gold,  silver,  bronze,  and  glass-wares  of  the 
Phoenicians,  and  the  precious  dye  known  as  Tyrian  purple, 
found  great  favor  in  foreign  markets. 

24.  Penetrating  the  remotest  corners  of  the  ancient 
world,  the  Phoenicians  were  carriers  of  ideas  as  well  as  of 
merchandize.  Our  greatest  debt  to  them  is  the  alphabet 
(§8).  They  were  not  inventors  either  in  art  or  literature, 
nor  were  they  inspired,  like  the  Greeks,  with  a  love  of 
freedom.  So  long  as  trade  flourished,  they  were  content 
to  pay  tribute  to  Assyria,  or  to  lend  their  ships  and  sailors 
to  the  Pharaohs.  This  is  true  especially  of  Sidon  and  the 
smaller  cities.  Tyre  withstood  three  memorable  sieges: 
one  of  five  years  by  Sargon,  B.  C.  720-715;  another  of 
thirteen  years  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  and  a  third  by  Alex- 
ander of  Macedon  (B.  C.  333,  332),  after  which  8,000  of 
her  people  were  slain,  and  30,000  sold  into  slavery.  The 
second  of  these  sieges  is  celebrated  in  the  Hebrew  Script- 
ures (Ezekiel  xxvi-xxviii).  The  bravery  of  the  Tyrians 
probably  secured  favorable  terms,  for  while  a  great  num- 
ber sailed  away  with  their  families  and  goods  to  Carthage, 
others  removed  to  an  island  half  a  mile  from  the  main- 
land, and  soon  made  New  Tyre  richer  than  the  Old. 

25.  When  Nebuchadnezzar's  kingdom  was  overthrown, 
the  Phoenicians  submitted  to  Cyrus,  and  their  ships  made 
the  principal  part  of  the  Persian  fleets.  They  brought  cedar 
wood  from  Lebanon  to  rebuild  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem, 
as  their  forefathers  had  done  in  the  days  of  Solomon  and 
Hiram  (i  Kings  v:  6-18.     Ezra  iii :  7). 

26.  Syria. — The  most  important  Syrian  state  had  its 
seat   at   Damascus,   one   of   the   oldest  cities   in   the  world. 


AS/A   MINOR.  21 


It  alone  was  able  to  hold  out  against  David  and  Solomon, 
who  reigned  over  all  the  remaining  country  from  the 
Mediterranean  to  the  Euphrates ;  but  three  centuries  later 
it  became  subject  to  the  Assyrian  kings.  Other  Syrian 
nations  were  the  Hamathites,  in  the  valley  of  the  Orontes; 
the  northern  and  warlike  Hittites,  whose  chief  city  was 
Carchemish;  and  the  southern  Hittites,  a  peaceable  trading 
people  near  the  Dead  Sea. 

27.  Asia  Minor. —  Probably  the  earliest  inhabitants  of 
Asia  Minor  were  the  Phrygians^  a  hardy  race  of  farmers 
and  vine-dressers,  who  had  come  from  Armenia  and 
brought  thence  a  tradition  of  the  Flood.  Later  came  the 
Cappadocians^  also  sons  of  Japhet  (§6),  who  crowded  the 
Phrygians  westward  of  the  River  Halys;  then  the  Thracians^ 
who  took  possession  of  the  north-western  coast,  to  which 
they  gave  the  name  Bithynia,  from  one  of  their  tribes. 
The  *  *  brave,  shield-bearing  Paphlagonians "  occupied  the 
rest  of  the  Euxine  coast.  A  mixed  population  of  Aryans 
and  Shemites  inhabited  Lycia,  Pamphylia,  and  Cilicia  on 
the  southern  shore;  while  the  borders  of  the  ^gean  were 
very  early  colonized  by  Greeks. 

28.  Among  all  these  nations,  Lydia^  became  supreme 
under  its  last  five  kings,  who  ruled  B.  C.  694-546.  In 
the  time  of  Ardys,  the  second  of  these  kings,  occurred 
one  of  those  great  movements  of  the  northern  barbarians, 
which  have  been  mentioned  in  §2.  The  Cimmerians 
(Crimeans)  of  southern  Russia,  ancestors  of  the  modern 
Cossacks,  swarmed  over  Asia  Minor,  captured  Sardis,  the 
Lydian  capital,  and  ravaged  all  the  western  provinces. 
Successive  waves  of  the  same  great  tide  of  migration 
spread  through  Italy;  another,  taking  a  more  northerly 
direction,  reached  the  western  coast  of  Britain,  where  the 
Cymry,  their  descendants,  still  live. 

29.  Croesus,  the  fifth  and  last  king  of  Lydia,  was  noted 
for   his  enormous  wealth.'    Having   become   master  of  all 


22 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD. 


Asia  Minor  and  the  Isles  of  Greece,  he  leagued  himself 
with  the  great  empires  of  Egypt  and  Babylon,  to  resist 
the  Persian  power,  which  was  then  becoming  formidable. 
His  efforts  were  vain;  having  fought  one  battle  in  Cappa- 
docia,  Cyrus  marched  swiftly  upon  Sardis,  defeated  and 
captured  its  king,  and  made  Lydia  a  province  of  the 
Persian  Empire. 


Map  2.     Asia  Minor. 

Point  out,  on  Maps  i   and  2,   the  following  countries  and   cities: 

Phoenicia — Sidon,  Tyre,  Berytus. 

Syria  —  Damascus,  Hamath,  Carchemish.     River  Orontes. 

Asia  Minor — Phrygia,  Cappadocia,  Bithynia,  Paphlagonia,  Lycia, 
Pamphylia,  Cilicia,  Lydia,  Sardis.     River  Halys.     Bound  Asia  Minor. 

Read  Rawlinson's  Ancient  Monarchies,  Vol.  II,  pp.  402-412,  444; 
Vol.  Ill,  51-53,  392.  Herodotus,  Book  I,  §  i ;  III,  ^19;  IV,  §42; 
V,  §58.     Grote's  History  of  Greece,  Chapters  XVII,  XVIII,  XXXII. 


NOTES.  23 


NOTES. 

1.  Sidon  WAS  the  ohlcHt  of  thcKo  cities,  and  it^  peopio  nro  RAid  to 
liuvo  been  the  first  to  abandon  the  waiidorlnK  ways  of  their  ancestors, 
and,  building  huts  by  tlie  sea,  find  tl»etr  Hubslsfcncc  in  its  waters.  The 
iianu>  SUUniuin.s  meant  jhhcrmrn.  IJut  tlie  dcs<'ondant«  of  nonuuls  by 
land  soon  botook  thenisclvi's  to  wider  wanderings  l)y  soa.  Their  flrst 
Nt'iitures  were  in  ciiiest  of  tlie  little  purple  tlsli,  oacli  one  of  which  af- 
iurdt<l  a  single  drop  of  the  precious  ctMorinj;  matter  with  which  the 
i-ostliost  cloths  were  dyed.  "All  the  coasts  of  the  ilOKean  were  ex- 
.iniined  by  means  of  divers  and  i)olnter-<lons;  and  probably  nothing 
prcHluced  so  immediate  a  contact  Ix'tween  tlie  old  and  new  world  or 
anti(iuity  as  the  inslKiiitlcant  muscle  In  question."  As  the  flsh  could 
not  be  transported  to  any  distance,  factories  were  est4iblished  at  vari- 
ous j)ointsonthe  (irci'k  islands  and  coasts,  and  even  In  southern  Italy. 

Tmil)er  was  cut  and  ships  built  wherever  a  safe  harbor  could  be 
found  in  the  nelglilM)rhoo<l  of  forests,  for  in  those  early  days  there  was 
no  other  maritime  nower  to  interfere.  The  half-savage  natives  of  Sicily, 
Corsica,  and  Sardinia,  were  glad  to  exchange  the  wild  prtxlucts  of  their 
islands  for  eastern  wares,  and  gained  at  the  market  mirs  of  the  Phoe- 
nicians some  ideas  of  numbers,  weights,  and  measures. 

It  was,  however,  the  discovery  of  the  precious  metals  in  Spain  that 
made  the  Tvrians  and  Sidonians  the  wealthiest  of  all  the  nations  of 
antiquity.  The  Tarshish  of  the  Old  Testament— which  the  Greeks  called 
Tartessus— included  the  modern  provinces  of  Andalusia  and  Murcia. 
"The  first  traders  to  these  fortunate  sliores  were  said  to  have  replaced 
their  leaden  anciiors  with  msvsses  of  silver,  rather  than  abandon  any  ol 
the  precious  substance  lavishly  tlung  at  their  feet  in  exchange  for  car- 
goes of  slight  intrinsic  value.  The  valleys  of  the  Guadiana  and  (iua- 
dalquivir  were  strewn  with  nuggets  of  silver.  The  mountains  from 
which  these  rivers  flowed,  yielded  iron,  copper  and  lead,  (iold,  derived 
from  the  washings  of  the  Tagus,  and  tin,  extracted  from  the  granite  of 
<ialicia,  were  brought  by  long  lines  of  inland  troflic  to  the  general 
mart." 

Spain  was,  in  its  turn,  tlie  starting-point  for  yet  more  distant  voya- 
ges. "  From  Tartessus  these  hardy  navigators  reached  the  shores  of  Brit- 
ain in  search  of  tin,  and  penetrated  the  Baltic  in  search  of  amber. 
From  Tartessus  they  colonized  — to  the  number,  as  traditionally  re- 
ported, of  three  hundred  — the  jieninsulas  and  islands  in  whicli  Atlas 
sinks  beneath  the  Atlantic." 

2.  The  Lydians  were  probably  a  Semitic  people,  who  had  pushed 
westward  from  the  Euphrates  Valley  to  the  "fertile  lowlands  of  the 
river  Hermus,"  where  they  became  mingled  with  the  earlier  settlers  of 
the  country.  Prof.  Curtiussays  {HiM.  of  Greece,  I,  86):  "As  long  as  we 
remain  unacquainted  with  the  spoken  and  written  language  of  the 
Lydians,  it  will  be  inii)ossible  to  define  with  any  accuracy  the  mixture  of 
peoples  which  here  took  place.  But  speaking  generally,  tlicre  is  no  doubt 
of  the  double  relationshipof  this  people,  and  of  its  consequent  important 
place  in  civilization  among  the  groups  of  the  nations  of  Asia  Minor. 
The  Lydians  became  on  land,  as  the  Phoenicians  by  sea,  the  mediators 
between  Hellas  and  Anterior  Asia.  As  a  people  whose  wits  had  been 
at  an  early  period  sharpened  by  intercourse  with  the  rest  of  the  world, 
full  of  enterprise  and  engaged  in  the  pursuits  lx)th  of  commerce  and 
of  domestic  industry,  they  were  the  fii-st  who  knew  how  to  Uike  every 
advantage  of  the  treasures  of  the  valley  of  the  Hermus.  At  the  base  of 
Tmolus  they  discovere<l,  in  the  sand  of  the  deciduous  rivulets,  the 
seemingly  insignificant  gold  dust,  and  thus,  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
Greeks,  brought  to  liglit  the  power  of  gold,  so  infinitely  important,  so 
fatal,  for  Greek  liistory.  The  Lydians  reckoned  three  epochs  under  three 
generations  of  rulers,  the  first  of  which  derived  its  source  from  Atys,  a 
god  belonging  to  the  mythic  circle  of  the  Mother  of  the  mountains, 
whose  worship  filled  with  its  tumultuous  music  all  the  highlands  of 
Lydia  and  Phrygia.  Their  second  dynasty,  the  Lydians,  led  back  to  a 
Heracles,  whom  they  called  the  son  of  Ninus.  Independently  of  this 
myth,  Ctesias  narrated  to  the  (ireeks  that  King  Ninus  [see  note  4,  Ch. 
1,1  had  conquered  Phrygia,  the  Troad,  and  Lydia.  Plato,  too,  had  lieard 
of  the  power  of  the  Nlnevites  as  supreme  in  Asia  Minor  at  the  lime  of 


24  THE  ANCIENT   WORLD. 

the  Trojan  War."  It  appears,  therefore,  that,  "through  five  centuries  or 
thereabouts,  the  Lydian  empire  was  a  state  in  vassalage  to  Nineveh  on 
the  'Hgris."    The  third  dynasty  is  the  one  mentioned  in  our  text. 

3.  "As  rich  as  Croesus"  was  tlie  proverbial  expression  in  ancient 
times  for  enormous  wealth;  but  the  last  Lydian  king  was  not  less  cele- 
brated for  his  misfortunes.  In  Rawlinson's  Herodotus,  I,  368,  we  learn 
how  his  story  was  regarded  by  the  Greeks.  "They  had  seen  the  rapid 
rise  and  growth  of  a  magnificent  empire  upon  their  borders,  and  had 
felt  its  irresistible  might  in  opposition  to  themselves;  they  had  been 
dazzled  by  the  lavish  display  of  a  wealth,  exceeding  all  that  their  poets 
had  ever  fabled  of  Colchis  or  Hesperia;  they  had  no  doubt  shared  in 
the  confident  expectation  of  further  conquests  with  which  the  warrior- 
prince,  at  the  head  of  his  unvanquished  bands,  had  crossed  the  Halys 
to  attack  his  unknown  enemy.  And  they  had  been  spectators  of  the 
result.  Within  a  few  weeks  the  prosperous  and  puissant  monarch, 
master  of  untold  treasures,  ruler  over  thirteen  nations,  lord  of  all  Asia 
from  the  Halys  to  the  sea,  was  a  captive  and  a  beggar,  the  miserable 
dependant  upon  the  will  of  a  despot  whose  anger  he  had  provoked. 
Such  a  catastrophe  had  in  it  something  peculiarly  calculated  to  excite 
the  feelings  of  the  Greeks.  Accordingly,  the  story  of  Croesus  seems  to 
have  become  to  the  romancers  of  tlie  period  what  the  old  heroic  tale 
of  Q^^dipus  was  to  the  tragedian,  the  type  of  human  instability." 

The  following  is  an  abridgment  of  the  tale  told  by  Herodotus:  When 
Solon,  the  Athenian,  was  on  his  travels  (see  g  112,  and  note),  partly  to 
gain  knowledge,  but  chiefly  to  rid  himself  of  the  questions  and  com- 
plaints of  the  Athenians  concerning  the  laws  that  he  had  made  for 
them,  he  came  to  the  Lydian  court  at  Sardis.  Croesus  entertained  him 
with  great  splendor;  and  after  the  wise  man  had  seen  the  gold  and 
iewels  of  his  treasuries,  thus  addressed  him:  "Stranger  of  Athens,  we 
have  heard  much  of  thy  wisdom  and  of  thy  travels  through  many 
lands.  I  am  curious,  therefore,  to  inquire  of  thee  whom  of  all  the  men 
that  thou  hast  seen,  thou  deemest  the  most  happy?"  This  he  asked, 
because  he  thought  himself  the  happiest  of  mortals;  but  Solon  an- 
swered him  without  flattery:  "Tellus,  of  Athens,  Sire."  To  the  sharp 
inquiry  of  Croesus  he  replied  that  Tellus  was  happiest  because  his  coun- 
try was  prosperous,  his  children  beautiful  and  good,  and  his  death  glo- 
rious. Hoping  still  for  the  second  place,  Croesus  asked  whom  Solon 
ranked  next  in  happiness.  Then  he  heard  the  names  of  two  strong 
young  Greeks  who  had  gained  prizes  in  the  games  (glO^).  Their  mother 
was  one  day  going  to  the  temple,  and,  the  oxen  not  arriving  in  time, 
they  yoked  themselves  to  her  car,  and  drew  her  thus  flve  and  forty 
furlongs.  The  crowd  assembled  at  the  temple,  praised  the  strength  and 
filial  devotion  of  the  youths,  and  their  mother,  overjoyed  at  the  honor 
they  had  won,  prayed  aloud  that  the  goddess  would  reward  them  with 
the  highest  blessing  that  mortals  could  attain.  They  fell  asleep  in  the 
temple,  and  never  woke  again. 

Croesus  then  angrily  demanded  whether  he  was  not  to  be  numbered 
among  the  happy  ones  of  earth.  Solon  calmly  answered,  that  so  many 
are  the  changes  of  life— every  day  bringing  some  new  circumstance— no 
man  could  be  called  really  happy  until  his  life  was  ended. 

Croesus  let  his  visitor  depart  without  the  customary  gifts,  displeased 
that  he  could  win  no  fiattery.  .  .  .  Afterward  the  king  was  visited 
by  many  sorrows,  ending  with  the  great  calamity  which  made  Cyrus 
the  master  of  his  kingdom.  Croesus  himself  was  placed  upon  a  funeral 
pile,  to  be  burnt  alive  with  fourteen  noble  Lydian  youth.  Now  it  en- 
tered his  mind  that  there  was  a  divine  warning  in  the  words  that  had 
come  to  him  from  the  lips  of  Solon:  'No  one  while  he  lives  is  happy.' 
When  this  thought  struck  him,  he  fetched  along  breath,  and,  breaking 
his  deep  silence,  groaned  forth,  "O  Solon,  Solon,  Solon!" 

Cyrus,  who  was  closely  watching  the  scene— perhaps  not  really  in- 
tending to  make  so  cruel  an  end  of  his  captive— bade  his  interpreters 
ask  what  god  or  man  it  was  whom  the  king  had  thus  invoked  in  his 
distress.  Croesus  replied  that  it  was  a  man  witti  whom  he  wished  that 
every  monarch  might  be  acquainted,  and  told  of  the  visit  of  the  serene 
philosopher  whom  he  had  been  unable  to  dazzle  by  his  splendor.  Cy- 
rus took  the  lesson  to  his  own  heart,  and,  admiring  the  wisdom  of 
Croesus  in  his  self-condemnation,  made  the  vanquished  king  his  most 
honored  friend  and  counselor. 


CHAPTER  III. 


THE   HEBREWS. 


ROM    the    Shemites    east    of   the 
Euphrates,  God  called  Abraham 
to  remove  westward  and  become 
the    founder   of    a   great   nation. 
The  story  of  this   people  —  com- 
prising its  education  out  of  heathenism 
into  the  belief  in  One  God,  and  the  suc- 
cessive   captivities  which    placed    it    at 
school  in  the  great  empires  of  Egypt  and 
Babylonia  just  at  the   periods  of  their 
highest  civilization  —  is  among  the  most 
wonderful  records  in  ancient  history. 

31.  Driven  by  famine  into  Egypt, 
the  descendants  of  Abraham  became 
slaves,  and  remained  in  bondage  until 
jewis  »g  -  nest,  ^j^^^  numbered  about  3,000,000  of  souls. 
Then  Moses  arose  —  trained  in  all  the  "learning  of  the 
Egyptians" — to  be  the  liberator,  leader,  and  lawgiver  of 
his  people.  Crossing  the  Red  Sea,  they  were  led  to  and  fro 
in  the  desert  forty  years,  receiving  the  Divine  Law  from 
Mt.  Sinai,  and  suffering  many  penalties  for  their  cowardice 
and  disobedience,  until  most  of  those  who  had  been  slaves 
were  dead.  Then  Joshua,  Moses'  successor,  led  their  chil- 
dren into  the  Promised  Land,  which  lay  mainly  between  the 
Jordan  and  the  Mediterranean.^  By  a  remarkable  series  of 
victories,  the  Canaanites  were  subdued  or  driven  out,  and 
the  wanderers  of  the  desert  then  became  tillers  of  the  soil. 

32.    The  Judges. — After   Joshua's   death,   the    people 
departed  from  the  true  faith,  and  were   often  subdued  by 

(25) 


26  THE  ANCIENT  WORLD. 

their  heathen  neighbors.  From  time  to  time  a  ''Judge" 
arose,  and  deHvered  them  from  their  oppressors;  but,  when 
he  was  dead,  "every  man  did  that  which  was  right  in  his 
own  eyes,"  until  a  new  calamity  called  for  a  new  deliver- 
ance (Judges  ii:  10-19). 

33.  The  Monarchy.  —  At  length  they  demanded  a 
king.  Saul  was  chosen,  and  by  a  series  of  successful 
wars  established  the  independence  of  Israel.  But  he  lost 
the  favor  of  God  by  disobedience,  and  David  was  anointed 
as  his  successor.  The  Philistines  invaded  the  country; 
Saul  and  his  sons  were  slain,  and  David  was  crowned  at 
Hebron.  For  seven  years  Saul's  only  surviving  son  ruled 
nominally  over  eleven  tribes;  but  on  his  death  David  be- 
came king  of  the  whole  country. 

34.  He  made  Jerusalem  his  capital,  and  the  home  of 
the  Hebrew  worship.  David  was  a  great  conqueror,  and 
his  kingdom  extended  from  the  borders  of  Egypt  to  the 
Euphrates.  But  his  fame  as  a  sacred  poet  is  greater  than 
as  king  or  warrior.  In  lyrical  strains,  that  have  never 
been  equaled  for  purity  and  elevation,  he  sang  the  victory 
of  the  soul  that  trusts  in  God.  His  old  age  was  clouded 
with  sorrow  for  the  misconduct  of  his  sons.  But  the  suc- 
cessive rebellions  of  Ab'salom  and  Adoni'jah  were  ended  by 
the  death  of  the  offenders,  and  Solomon,  David's  favorite 
son,  came  peacefully  to  the  throne. 

35.  Under  Solomon,  Israel  first  became  a  commercial 
nation.  The  king  kept  fleets  of  merchant  vessels  in  the 
Red  Sea  and  the  Mediterranean,  by  means  of  which  the 
luxuries  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa  were  brought  to 
Jerusalem.  His  greatest  work  was  the  building  of  the 
Temple.  Its  dedication  (B.  C.  1004)  was  so  important  an 
event  as  to  make  the  beginning  of  Hebrew  chronology. 
(Read  i  Kings  viii.)  Solomon's  wisdom  surpassed  that  of 
all  the  children  of  the  East  and  of  Egypt  (i  Kings  iii :  5  - 
14 J   iv :  29-34;    x:  23,  24);    but  in  old  age  his  heart  was 


THE  KINGDOM  OF  JUDAH.  27 


corrupted  by  luxury  and  power.  His  people  were  heavily 
taxed  to  maintain  his  court  and  his  great  i)ul)li(:  works. 
After  his  death,  ten  tribes  revoked  against  Rehoboam,  his 
son,  and  established  the  rival  kingdom  of  Israel. 

36.  Jeroboam,  the  first  king  of  Israel,  set  up  an  idol- 
itrous  worship,  in  order  to  wean  his  people  from  Jerusalem 
and  the  House  of  David.  His  wicked  plan  succeeded, 
and  for  centuries  the  only  witnesses  to  the  true  God  were 
solitary  prophets  (i  Kings  xvi :  1-3;  xvii-xix).  The  nine- 
teen kings  of  Israel  belonged  to  nine  different  families, 
and  many  of  them  died  by  violence.  The  later  kings  had 
wars  with  Assyria,  which  ended  in  the  overthrow  of  their 
kingdom,  and  the  captivity  of  their  people.  The  land 
was  left  so  desolate  that  wild  beasts  prowled  in  the  cities, 
until  colonists  were  brought  from  beyond  the  Euphrates 
to  replace  the  captive  Israelites.     (§12.). 

37.  The  kingdom  of  Judah  remained  loyal  to  the 
House  of  David;  and,  notwithstanding  its  exposed  posi- 
tion between  the  great  warring  empires  of  Egypt  and 
Assyria,  it  kept  its  independent  existence  nearly  a  century 
and  a  half  longer  than  Israel.  Of  the  eighteen  kings  who 
reigned  over  Judah  alone,  eight  "did  right  in  the  sight 
of  the  Lord."  The  rest  were  idolaters.  The  last  of  the 
good  kings,  Josiah,  repaired  the  temple  and  discovered 
the  Book  of  the  Law,  which  had  long  been  lost.  A 
solemn  Passover  was  now  held  (B.  C.  623),  at  which  not 
only  the  men  of  Judah  but  all  true  believers  who  were  left 
in  the  desolate  land  of  Israel  were  present,  and  renewed 
their  allegiance  to  the  God  of  their  fathers. 

38.  During  this  reign,  Palestine  had  its  share  in  the 
Scythian  invasions^  (§  15),  and  a  still  greater  calamity 
marked  its  close.  Josiah  was  slain  in  battle  (2  Chron. 
XXXV :  20-27).  His  son  became  a  captive  in  Babylon, 
but  the  next  king,  Zedekiah,  revolted  and  allied  himself 
with  Egypt.    Nebuchadnezzar  then  besieged  and  took  Jeru- 


28  THE  ANCIENT  WORLD. 

salem,  destroyed  the  Temple,  and  carried  all  its  treasures, 
with  the  king  and  the  whole  nation,  away  to  Babylon. 
The  land  was  desolate,  and  Jewish  history  ceased,  B.  C. 
586,  for  fifty  years. 

39.  The  empire  of  Nebuchadnezzar  was  then  in  its 
turn  overthrown  by  the  Persians,  who,  like  the  Jews, 
worshiped  one  God,  and  abhorred  idolatry.  Their  great 
king,  Cyrus,  whom  the  Hebrew  prophets  had  long  ago 
described  as  the  deliverer  of  their  nation  (Isa.  xliv :  28- 
xlv  :  4),  B.  C.  536,  ordered  the  return  of  the  Jews  to  their 
own  land,  and  the  rebuilding  of  Jerusalem  and  its  temple. 
The  neighboring  heathen  tribes  violently  opposed  the 
work;  but  Ar'taxerx'es,  the  great-grandson  of  Cyrus,  con- 
ferred great  powers  on  Ezra,  the  priest,  and  Nehemiah,  the 
last  of  whom  completed  the  defenses  of  Jerusalem.  Ezra, 
meanwhile,  collected  and  edited  the  sacred  books  which 
make  the  Old  Testament. 

40.  After  his  death,  and  Nehemiah's  departure,  the  old 
troubles  returned.  Even  the  High  Priest  proved  a  traitor; 
and  the  Sabbath  was  profaned  by  common  traffic  and 
labor.  Nehemiah  came  back  from  Persia  as  a  royal  gov- 
ernor, reformed  these  abuses,  and  expelled  the  new  high- 
priest  because  he  had  married  a  pagan  woman.  There- 
upon, her  father  built  a  rival  temple^  upon  Mt.  Gerizim,  in 
Samaria,  for  the  exiled  priest;  and  there  to  this  day  the 
rites  of  Hebrew  worship  are  maintained.  But  ''the  Jews 
had  no  dealings  with  the  Samaritans;"  indeed,  at  this 
point,  the  mixture  of  Jewish  and  pagan  practices  wholly 
ceased. 

Point  out,  on  Map  I,  Jerusalem,  the  Red  Sea,  the  River  Euphrates. 

Note. — The  story  of  the  Hebrews — briefly  outlined  in  this  chapter 
— is  told  in  the  historical  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  from  Genesis  to 
Esther,  and  illustrated  by  the  Psalms  and  Prophecies.  Read,  beside, 
Josephus'  "Antiquities,"  Milman's  "History  of  the  Jews,"  and  Stan- 
ley's "Lectures  on  the  History  of  the  Jewish  Church." 


NOTES,  29 


NOTES. 

1.  The  narrow  mountain  region  at  the  eastern  end  of  the  Medlteira- 
nojm  Soa,  which  formed  the  Promised  I^^imi  of  the  Hohrews.  Isaeountry 
of  tlu"  Kroatest  interest  aside  from  tlu'  remnrkahU'  history  of  which  it  hOA 
been  the  se»>iio.  Tiu>  following  account  is  condensed  from  a  v«>liimo  on 
**Sinai  and  Palestine,"  l)y  tlie  hite  Dean  Stanley. 

"  Between  tlie  Kreal  plains  of  Assyria  and  the  shoresof  the  Medltcrra- 
uean,  a  hinh  mountain  tract  is  interposed,  reivching  from  the  Hay  of 
Issus  to  the  Desert  of  Arabia.  It  is  with  the  southern  division  that 
we  are  now  concerniHi.  From  the  summits  of  Lebanon  tiow  four  rivers 
of  unenual  magnitude,  on  which,  at  ditierent  times,  have  sprung  up  the 
four  ruling  powers  of  that  i>ortton  of  Asia.  The  northern  River— the 
channel  of  life  and  civilization  in  the  northern  regions  of  Syria— is  the 
Orontes,  the  river  of  the  CJreek  kingdom  of  Antioch  and  Seleucla  [see 
gl«>S|,  The  western  is  the  Litany,  rising  near  Baalbec,  and  falling  into 
the  Medit^«rranean  close  to  Tyre -the  river  of  PhaMiicia.  The  e»ustern  is  the 
m«Klern  liarada,  the  Abana  or  Pharpar  of  the  Old  Testament— the  river 
of  Damiuscus.  The  fourtli  and  southern  river,  which  rises  in  the  point 
where  Hermon  splits  into  its  two  parallel  ranges,  is  the  River  of  Pales- 
tine, the  Jonian.  Its  name  signitlcs  "the  Descender."  and  it  plunges 
down  so  rapidly  through  its  narrow  gorge,  that  its  end  in  the  Dead  Sea 
is  thirteen  hundred  feet  below  the  level  of  the  Mediterranean.  The 
heat  and  fertility  of  the  Jordan  Valley  make  it  a  tangled  wilderness  of 
tropical  vegetation,  where  lions  from  the  neighboring  desert  shelter 
themselves. 

The  total  extent  of  the  Holy  Land  was  180  miles  from  nortji  to  south, 
and  about  .V)  from  the  Jordan  to  the  western  sea.  The  contrast  between 
the  littleness  of  Palestine  and  the  vast  extent  of  the  empires  which 
hung  upon  its  northern  and  southern  skirts,  is  rarely  absent  from  the 
mind  of  the  Prophets  and  Psjilmists,  From  almost  every  high  point  in 
the  country,  its  whole  breadth  is  visible,  from  the  long  wall  of  the  Moab 
hills  on  the  east,  to  the  Mediterranean  on  the  west.  Yet,  by  its  natural 
outworks,  the  people  were  eftbctually  "set  apart"  from  the  rest  of  the 
world.  The  deep  cleft  of  the  Jordan  Valley,  the  hills  to  the  eastward, 
and  the  desert,  were  their  defenses  against  the  great  empires  of  Assyria 
and  Biibylonia.  They  were  protected  from  Egyptian  invasion  by  that 
"great  and  terrible  wilderness,"  which  rolled  like  a  sea  between  the 
valley  of  the  Nile  and  the  valley  of  the  Jordan,  reaching  up  to  the  very 
frontier  of  their  own  land.  The  two  accessible  sides  were  the  west  and 
the  north.  But  the  west  was  only  accessible  by  sea,  and  when  Israel 
first  settled  in  Palestine,  the  Mediterranean  was  not  yet  the  thorough- 
fare— it  was  rather  the  boundary  and  the  terror— of  the  eastern  nations. 
It  is  true  that  from  the  north-western  coast  of  Syria,  the  Phoenician 
cities  sent  forth  their  fleets.  But  they  were  the  exception  of  the  world, 
the  discoverers,  the  first  explorers  of  the  unknown  depths,— and,  in  their 
enterprises,  Israel  never  joined.  In  strong  contrast,  too,  with  the  coasts 
of  Europe,  and  especially  of  Greece,  Palestine  has  no  indentations,  no 
winding  creeks,  no  deep  havens,  such  as  in  ancient,  even  more  than 
in  motlern  times,  were  necessary  for  the  invitation  and  protection  of 
commercial  enterprise.  One  long  line,  broken  only  by  the  bay  of  Acre, 
contixinlng  only  three  bad  harbors,  Joppa,  Acre,  and  Caipha,  is  the  In- 
hospitable front  that  Palestine  opposed  to  the  western  world.  On  the 
northern  frontier,  the  ranges  of  Lebanon  formed  two  not  insignificant 
ramparts.  But  the  gate  between  them  was  open,  and  through  the  long 
valley  of  Caele  Syria,  the  hosts  of  Syrian  and  Assyrian  conquerors  ac- 
cordingly poured. 

Palestine,  though  now  at  the  very  outskirts  of  that  tide  of  civiliza- 
tion which  has  swept  far  into  the  remotest  west,  was  then  the  van- 
guard of  the  eastern,  and,  therefore,  of  the  civilized  world;  and,  more- 
over, stood  midway  between  the  two  great  seats  of  ancient  empire, 
Babylon  and  Egypt.  It  was  on  the  high  road  from  one  and  the  other 
of  these  mighty  powers,  the  prize  for  which  they  contended,  the  battle- 
field on  whioii'they  fought,— the  high  bridge  over  which  they  ascended 
and  descended  respectively  into  the  deep  basins  of  the  Nile  and  Eu- 

})hrate8.  Its  first  ajiiwaraiice  on  the  stage  of  history  is  as  a  halting-place 
or  a  wanderer  from  Mesopotamia,  who  "  pa.sse<l  through  the  land,"  and 
"journeyed,  going  on  still  toward  the  south,"  and  "went  down  into 


30  THE  ANCIENT   WORLD. 

Egypt."  The  first  great  struggle  which  that  wanderer  had  to  maintain, 
was  against  the  host  of  Chedorlaomer,-  from  Persia  and  from  Babylon. 
The  battle  in  which  the  latest  hero  of  the  Jewish  monarchy  perished, 
was  to  check  the  advance  of  an  P^gyptian  king  on  his  way  to  contest 
the  empire  of  the  then  known  world  with  the  king  of  Assyria,  at  Car- 
chemish.  The  whole  history  of  Palestine,  between  the  return  from  the 
Captivity  and  the  Christian  Era,  is  a  contest  between  the  "kings  of  the 
North  and  the  kings  of  the  South"— the  descendants  of  Seleucus  and 
the  descendants  of  Ptolemy  (see  Ch.  XI)— for  the  possession  of  the  coun- 
try. And,  when,  at  last,  the  West  begins  to  rise  as  a  new  power  on  the 
horizon,  Palestine,  as  the  nearest  point  of  contact  between  the  two 
worlds,  becomes  the  scene  of  the  chief  conflicts  of  Rome  with  Asia. 
There  is  no  other  country  in  the  world  which  could  exhibit  the  same 
confluence  of  associations,  as  that  which  is  awakened  by  the  rocks 
which  overhang  the  crystal  streams  of  the  Dog  River,  where  it  rushes 
through  the  ravines  of  Lebanon  into  the  Mediterranean  Sea;  where,  side 
by  side,  are  to  be  seen  the  hieroglyphics  of  the  great  Raraeses  [g  71],  the 
cuneiform  characters  of  Sennacherib  [g  13],  and  the  Latin  inscriptions 
of  the  Emperor  Antoninus  [g  254]. 

2.  This  "was  the  earliest  recorded  of  those  movements  of  the  north- 
ern populations,  hid  behind  the  long  mountain-barrier,  which,  under  the 
name  of  Himalaya,  Caucasus,  Taurus,  Hcemus,  and  the  Alps,  has  been 
reared  by  nature  between  the  civilized  and  uncivilized  races  of  the  old 
world.  Suddenly,  above  this  boundary,  appeared  those  strange,  uncouth, 
fur-clad  forms,  hardly  to  be  distinguished  from  their  horses  and  their 
wagons,  fierce  as  their  own  wolves  or  bears,  sweeping  toward  the  south- 
ern regions,  which  seemed  to  them  their  natural  prey.  The  successive 
invasions  of  Parthians,  Turks,  Mongols  in  Asia  [see  B.  II,  Ch.  VIII],  of 
Gauls,  Goths,  Vandals,  Huns  in  Europe  [I,  Ch.  XVlII],  'have,'  it  is  well 
said,  'illustrated  the  law  and  made  us  familiar  with  its  operation.  But 
there  was  a  time  in  history  before  it  had  come  into  force,  and  when  its 
very  existence  must  have  been  unsuspected.'  No  wonder  that  now, 
when  the  vail  was  the  first  time  rent  asunder,  all  the  ancient  monarch- 
ies of  the  south,— Assyria,  Babylon,  Media,  Egypt,  even  Greece  and  Asia 
Minor— stood  aghast  at  the  spectacle  of  these  savage  hordes  rushing  down 
on  the  seats  of  luxury  and  power.  It  must  have  been  about  the  middle 
of  Josiah's  reign,  that  one  division  of  them  broke  into  Syria.    They 

Penetrated,  on  their  way  to  Egypt,  as  far  as  the  southern  frontier  of 
alestine,  and  were  then  bought  oft"  by  Psammetichus  [g72],  and  re- 
tired after  sacking  the  temple  of  Astarte,  at  Ascalon.  One  permanent 
trace  of  their  passage  they  left  as  they  scoured  through  the  plain  of 
Esdraelon.  The  old  Canaanitish  city  of  Bethshan,  at  the  eastern  ex- 
tremity of  that  plain,  from  them  received  the  name  which  it  bore 
throughout  the  Roman  empire  in  the  mouths  of  the  Greeks,  Scythopo- 
lis,  'the  city  of  the  Scythians.'  ...  In  these  tremendous  forms,  not 
without  a  prophetic  sense  of  their  vast  importance,  was  hailed  the  first 
apparition  of  the  future  fathers  of  the  coming  northern  world.  Gog  and 
Magog  are  the  primeval  names  which,  now  first  introduced,  were  re- 
vived in  the  Apocalypse  as  representatives  of  the  vast  barbarian  tribes 
which  threatened  the  empire  of  Rome,  as  that  of  Assyria  had  been 
threatened  by  the  Scythians  of  oXA:'— Stanley,  History  of  Jewish  Church, 
II,  557. 

3.  "There  is,  probably,  no  other  locality  in  which  the  same  worship 
has  been  sustained  with  so  little  change  or  interruption  for  so  great  a 
series  of  years,  as  that  of  this  mountain,  from  Abraham  to  the  present 
day.  In  their  humble  svnagogue,  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain,  the 
Samaritans  still  worship— the  oldest  and  the  smallest  sect  in  the  world. 
And  up  the  side  of  the  mountain,  and  on  its  long  ridge,  is  to  be  traced 
the  pathway  by  which  they  ascend  to  the  sacred  spots  where  they 
yearly  celebrate,  alone  of  all  the  Jewish  race,  the  Paschal  Sacrifice."— 
'Stanley,  Sinai  and  Palestine,  236. 


*See  Genesis  xiv.  Chedorlaomer  was  a  king  of  Elam,  between  the  21st  and  23d 
centuries B.  C,  who  had  made  himself  "master  of  the  whole  Tigro-Euphrates  Valley. 
He  had  as  vassals,  Amraphel,  king  of  Shinar,  or  Chaldea ;  Arioch,  king  of  Ellasar,  the 
chief  of  the  Assyrian  cities  of  that  time,  and  Thargal  [Tidal]  king  of  nations;  t,  e.,  no- 
madic tribes  of  Sythians   or   Turanians.— I^normanf,  Ancient  History  of  the  _East,  I,  352. 


CHAPTER   TV. 

TUF.    MKDo-l'F.KSIAN    KMr'IKF.. 


%   em    . 


l^'  the  victories  of  Cyrus, 
the    Aryan    or    Indo- 
Oermanic  race  became 
predominant    in    West- 
ern   Asia,    and    it    has    ever 
since  filled  a  chief  i)lace  in 
universal  history.   The  Medes 
and  Persians  were  united  un- 
der one  king ;  but  while  the 
former  had  become  enfeebled 
by  hixury  (§i6),  the    latter 
still  kept  their  hardy  habits. 
^   ..        _^  ^  "T^o  ^^^^  ^^^  horse,  to  draw 

i"^''"     ^"  the   bow,  and   to   speak  the 

Bas-Rciief  from  Persepoiis.  truth,"  was  the  education  of 
their  noblemen.  Their  religion  —  the  purest,  probably,  of 
unrevealed  faiths  —  taught  them  a  belief  in  one  God,  and 
an  abhorrence  of  idols.  The  Medes,  on  the  contrary,  had 
abandoned  the  doctrines  which  they  and  the  Persians  had 
received  from  Zoroas'ter,  ^  and,  by  contact  with  the  Turan- 
ians, had  adopted  a  gross  form  of  Nature-worship.  Fire 
was  the  chief  object  of  their  adoration.  The  Magi  were 
iheir  priests,  without  whose  aid  no  man  could  pray,  so 
elaborate  were  their  religious  rites. 

42.  Cyrus,  the  Persian  prince,  spent  many  years  of  his 
youth  at  the  court  of  Ecbat'ana,  and  gathered  about  him 
a  party  of  the  younger  Medes,  who  at  length  revolted 
against  Astyages  and  secured  to  their  young  chief  the 
crown   of  the  two  kingdoms.      No   sooner  was  his   power 

(30 


32  THE  ANCIENT  WORLD. 

confirmed  at  home,  than  a  league  of  Babylon,  Egypt, 
Lydia,  and  some  Grecian  states,  demanded  his  attention 
abroad.  He  subdued  Lydia  (§29),  and  added  all  Asia 
Minor  to  his  dominion;  then,  turning  eastward,  he  spent 
thirteen  years  in  conquering  the  country  between  Media 
and  Hindustan,  including  the  populous  provinces  of  Hyr- 
cania,   Parthia,   Bactria,   etc. 

43.  His  greatest  success  was  the  siege  and  capture  of 
Babylon.  This  great  capital  of  Nebuchadnezzar  was  the 
strongest  city  of  the  ancient  world.  Its  walls  were  200 
cubits  high,  and  fifty  in  thickness.  The  Euphrates  flowed 
through  the  city,  but  its  banks  were  guarded  by  walls 
and  brazen  gates,  while  a  network  of  canals,  sluices,  and 
reservoirs,  above  and  below  Babylon,  was  so  contrived 
that  the  whole  country  could  be  laid  under  water  in  case 
of  an  enemy's  approach. 

44.  Nevertheless,  the  city  fell.  Cyrus  had  turned  off 
the  waters  of  the  Euphrates  into  a  lake  without  the  walls, 
leaving  its  usual  bed  dry.  The  crown-prince,  Belshazzar, 
trusting  in  the  strength  of  his  defenses,  left  the  river 
gates  unguarded,  while  he  and  his  courtiers  were  engaged 
in  drunken  revelry.  Cyrus  and  his  army  entered  the 
city;  Belshazzar  was  slain  at  his  palace  gates;  his  father 
surrendered  himself  a  prisoner,  and  Babylon  became  the 
winter-capital  of  the  Medo-Persian  Empire.* 

45.  Cyrus  was  killed  in  a  war  with  the  wandering  tribes 
east  of  the  Sea  of  Aral,  and  his  son,  Camby'ses,  inherited 
his  crown.  He  first  took  possession  of  Phoenicia  and 
Cyprus,  thus  gaining  fleets  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  then 
proceeded  with  his  father's  plans  for  the  conquest  of 
Egypt.     He  desired  also  to  conquer  Carthage,  and  extend 


*  Read  the  story  in  Daniel  v.  "Darius,  the  Median,"  was  prob- 
ably the  deposed  king,  Astyages  (^42),  who  was  consoled  for  his  lost 
kingdom  by  the  rich  satrapy  of  Babylon. 


REIGN  OF  DARIUS,  33 

his  empire  to  the  Atlantic,  but  the  Phoenicians  refused  to 
serve  against  one  of  their  own  colonies  (§  24).  His  at- 
tempts upon  the  interior  of  Africa  miserably  failed.  One 
irmy  of  50,000  men  was  buried  in  the  sands;  another 
nearly  perished  of  starvation. 

46.  Cambyses  enraged  the  Egyptians  by  ridiculing  their 
worship,  and  stabbing  their  sacred  calf  with  his  own 
dagger.  Their  priests  declared  that  he  was  smitten  with 
madness,  as  a  punishment  for  this  act;  but  in  truth  his 
only  insanity  si)rang  from  his  unregulated  passions.  He 
had  caused  his  only  brother  to  be  put  to  death.  He  now 
heard  that  the  younger  son  of  Cyrus  had  taken  possession 
of  the  throne.  This  was,  in  fact,  a  Magian  impostor,  who 
happened  to  resemble  the  murdered  prince;  but  as  the 
crime  of  Cambyses  was  a  secret,  every  one  believed  that 
his  brother  was  really  reigning  at  Ecbatana.  In  the  act 
of  setting  out  for  home,  Cambyses  was  mortally  wounded, 
and  died  bewailing  his  crimes  and  follies. 

47.  The  usurper  meanwhile  closed  the  Persian  temples, 
stopped  the  rebuilding  of  that  of  the  Hebrews  (Ezra  iv: 
17-24),  and  restored  the  corrupt  Magianism  (§41)  which 
Cyrus  had  overthrown.  The  Persian  nobles  began  to  suspect 
him,  and  by  a  bold  attack  put  an  end  to  his  life  and  reign. 

48.  Dari'us  Hystas'pes,  cousin  of  Cyrus,  then  became 
king  of  the  Medes  and  Persians,  and  proceeded  to  make 
a  compact  and  well  governed  empire  out  of  the  many 
countries  which  Cyrus  and  Cambyses  had  conquered.  The 
native  kings  were  removed,  and  the  20  satrapies  or  prov- 
inces, into  which  the  empire  was  newly  divided,  were 
committed  to  Persian  or  Median  governors.  Each  prov- 
ince had  three  chief  officers :  the  satrap,  who  ruled  in 
civil  affairs;  the  general,  who  controlled  the  army;  and  the 
royal  secretary,  who  kept  the  king  informed  of  all  that  was 
done.  Neither  of  these  could  revolt  without  the  others, 
and  mutual  jealousies  kept  them  from  combining. 

Hist— 3. 


34  THE   ANCIENT  WORLD. 

49.  Instead  of  levying  immense  and  arbitrary  contribu- 
tions at  any  time,  like  other  Asiatic  monarchs,  the  Great 
King  rctjuired  from  each  province  a  regular  yearly  tribute 
according  to  its  wealth.  The  satraps  were  permitted  to 
support  themselves  out  of  the  possessions  of  the  people; 
but  if  convicted  of  extortion,  they  were  sure  to  be  pun- 
ished. Each  satrap  lived  in  royal  magnificence;  but  the 
court  of  the  Great  King  far  surpassed  those  of  the  prov- 
inces. 15,000  persons  fed  daily  at  his  expense;  a  great 
army  guarded  his  person.  Chief  among  these  were  the 
10,000  ''Immortals,"  whose  armor  glittered  with  gold,  and 
who  were  chosen  from  all  the  nation  for  their  strength, 
stature,  and  beauty. 

50.  Darius  endeavored  to  reconcile  the  Persian  religion 
with  Median  fire-worship,  which  better  suited  the  ceremo- 
nious splendor  of  his  court.  The  Magi  accepted  the  chief 
doctrines  of  Zoroaster,  and  were  entrusted  with  the  care 
of  religious  services.  They  kindled  the  sacred  fires  in 
the  temples  and  on  the  summits  of  the  mountains,  and 
chanted  hymns  at  the  rising  of  the  sun.  They  studied 
the  starry  heavens,  and  believed  that  they  read  the  pur- 
poses of  God  in  the  motions  of  the  planets,  as  well  as  in 
the  interpretation  of  dreams  (Daniel  ii :  i-io).  The  edu- 
cation of  princes  was  committed  to  them,  and  they  became 
the  most  trusted  councilors  of  the  king. 

51.  Darius  conquered  an  important  part  of  western  India, 
increasing  his  revenues  one  third  by  its  gold  tribute;  then 
turned  his  arms  against  the  Scythians.  Their  incursions  a 
century  before  had  not  been  forgotten  (§15);  like  a  black 
thunder-cloud  in  the  north  they  seemed  always  threatening 
the  existence  of  his  empire;  and,  moreover,  Darius  was 
now  planning  a  conquest  of  Greece,  a  movement  which 
might  easily  be  defeated  by  the  wild  tribes  north  of  the 
Danube,  unless  they  were  first  over-awed  by  his  power. 
With  an  army  of  more  than  700,000  men,  he  marched  as 


liArri  r.  or  rrfERMonYLAi.  35 


far  as  the  present  Russian  town  of  \ Oroiuj,  .md  bunii  .1 
(ircek  trading  station,  then  the  only  town  existing  on  that 
vast,  desolate  i)lain.  'I'he  barbarians  avoided  a  battle; 
having  no  settlements  to  defend,  they  only  retired  into 
remoter  wildernesses;  but  Darius,  returning  in  triumph 
two  months  after  crossing  the  Danube,  added  to  the  num- 
ber of  his  subjects  the  "Scythians  beyond  the  sea."  One 
of  his  generals  meanwhile  concjuered  the  Thracian  coast, 
and  extended  the  Persian  i)ower  over  Macedonia,  which 
submitted  to  tribute  and  allegiance. 

52.  The  Asiatic  Greeks  soon  afterward  revolted,  and 
their  united  forces  surprised  and  burned  Sardis.  But 
Miletus,  the  chief  of  the  Greek  cities,  and  the  leader  of 
the  revolt,  was  •  subdued  in  the  sixth  year  of  the  war. 
The  vengeance  of  Darius  was  then  excited  against  the 
Athenians,^  who  had  aided  their  Asiatic  brethren  in  rebellion 
(§109).  His  first  expedition  against  European  Greece 
was  baffled  by  storms  and  the  valor  of  the  Thracians;  the 
second  was  defeated  by  the  Athenians  in  the  battle  of 
Mar'athon  (§115).  Before  he  could  go  in  person  to  punish 
the  Greeks,  Darius'' died  (B.  C.  486). 

53.  His  son  Xerx'es — probably  the  Ahasue'rus  of  the 
Book  of  Esther — spent  seven  years  in  arming  and  drilling 
recruits  and  providing  stores  of  food;  then,  with  more 
than  2,000,000  of  fighting  men,  he  crossed  the 
Hellespont  into  Europe.  A  fleet  of  1,200  first-  •  •  4  • 
class,  and  3,000  smaller  vessels,  bearing  another  half  million 
of  men,  attended  him  along  the  shore.  At  Thermopylae, 
a  narrow  pass  between  Mt.  CEta  and  the  sea,  the  Spartan 
king,  Leon'idas,  awaited  him  with  6,000  men.  For  several 
days  this  little  band  withstood  the  whole  Persian  host, 
which  was  then  admitted  to  the  pass  only  by  the  treachery 
of  a  Greek.  Leonidas  now  dismissed  all  his  force  except 
300  Spartans  and  400  Thespians,  who  fought  until  the  last 
man  but  one  was  slain. 


36  THE   ANCIENT  WORLD. 

54.  Meanwhile,  storm  and  battle  had  destroyed  600 
Persian  ships;  but  Xerxes  marched  on,  receiving  the 
submission  of  the  greater  part  of  central  Greece.  He 
plundered  and  burnt  Athens,  and  prepared  for  a  decisive 
naval  battle  off  the  Isle  of  Sal'amis.  Here  the  Greeks 
won  a  still  more  glorious  victory  than  that  of  Marathon. 
Well  acquainted  with  the  narrow  seas,  they  drove  their 
brazen-pointed  ships  dexterously  into  the  clumsy  Persian 
galleys.  From  early  dawn  till  night  the  combat  raged, 
while  Xerxes  watched  it  from  his  throne  on  Mt.  ^ga'leos. 
At  length,  humbled  and  depressed,  he  withdrew  his  forces 
and  marched  for  the  Hellespont. 

55.  His  brother-in-law,  Mardo'nius,  remained  with  300,- 
000  men  in  Thessaly,  and  was  defeated  and  slain  the 
next  year  in  the  battle  of  Platae'a.  No  Persian  army  was 
ever  again  seen  in  Greece,  and  for  twelve  years  no  Persian 
sail  appeared  in  the  ^gean.  Xerxes,  having  wrecked  his 
youthful  hopes  by  vain  ambition,  gave  up  his  later  years 
to  idle  luxury,  and  was  murdered  at  last  by  two  of  his 
servants  (B.  C.  465). 

56.  B.  C.  465-425.  During  the  forty  years'  reign  of 
his  son  Ar'taxerx'es,  the  Long-handed,  the  power  of  the 
empire  declined.  Egypt  and  Syria  revolted,  with  aid  from 
the  Athenians;  and  though  the  Persian  power  was  reestab- 
lished, the  king  was  unable  to  punish  the  rebels  as  Darius 
would  have  done.  He  acknowledged  the  freedom  of  the 
Asiatic  Greeks,  and  promised  not  to  visit  their  shores  with 
either  fleet  or  army. 

57.  Three  sons  of  Artaxerxes  wore  the  crown  in  rapid 
succession,  while  the  empire  constantly  became  weaker. 
Under  Darius  H  (B.  C.  424-405),  the  queen,  Parys'atis, 
ruled  in  the  palace,  and  her  cruel  passions  alienated  those 
who  should  have  been  the  best  supports  of  the  throne. 
Egypt  threw  off  the  Persian  yoke.  Cyrus,  a  younger  son 
of   Darius    and    Parysatis,   was   satrap   of   Phrygia,  Lydia, 


ALEXANDER   THE  CREAT.  37 

and  Cappadocia;  but  with  his  mother's  aid  he  plotted  for 
tlie  i)ossession  of  the  whole  empire. 

58.  At  this  point  Darius  II  died,  and  Artaxerxes  II 
succeeded  him.  Cyrus  hired  an  army  of  Spartans,  whom 
lie  kept  ignorant  of  his  true  designs;  and,  marching  against 
his  brother,  was  defeated  and  slain  at  Cunax'a. 

The  Greeks  who  had  been  entrapped  into  the 
war  were  now  in  a  perilous  case,*  but  Xen'ophon,  whom 
they  chose  for  one  of  their  leaders,  rescued  them  by  a 
bold  and  successful  movement  toward  the  Black  Sea.  His 
story  of  the  "Retreat  of  the  Ten  Thousand"  is  a  wonder- 
ful record  of  hardships  borne  and  dangers  surmounted. 
Artaxerxes  not  only  kept  his  kingdom,  but  he  extended 
his  power  over  the  Greeks,  in  revenge  for  the  aid  which 
they  had  afforded  his  brother. 

59.  B.  C.  359  —  338.  Artaxerxes  III  was  a  spirited  and 
pOAverful  monarch,  and  under  him  Egypt  became  again  a 
Persian  province.  After  the  short  and  insignificant  reign 
of  his  son,  Arses,  Darius  Codomannus,  one  of  the  best, 
but  also   the   most   unfortunate  of  the   Persian 

kings,  came  to  the  throne.      The   Greeks   had 
been  nursing  their  revenge  against  the  Persians  for  nearly 
200   years.      In   the   young   king  Alexander,  of  Macedon, 
they  had   now  a  leader   abler   than   Cyrus,  and  more  am- 
bitious than  Xerxes. 

60.  Crossing  the  Hellespont  with  his  35,000  Greeks, 
Alexander  defeated  the  Persians  at  the  little  river  Granicus, 
and  proceeded  to  set  free  all  the  cities  of  the  western 
coast.     At   Issus,  near   the  gates  of  Syria,   he 

first  met  Darius ;    and  the  latter,  with  his  half  •  3   • 

million  of  men,  was  utterly  overthrown.  After  conquer- 
ing Syria,  Phoenicia,  and  Egypt,  Alexander  marched  east- 
ward for  the  grand  contest  which  was  to  decide  the  fate 
of  Asia.  The  battle  is  named  from  Arbela,  where  the 
Persian  stores  were  deposited,  though  it  was  20  miles  from 


3^  THE  ANCIENT  WORLD. 


the  field.  Darius  had  mustered  more  than  a  milHon  of 
men,  next  to  the  Greeks  the  finest  soldiers  in  the  world. 
He  had  chosen  his  ground  on  a  great  plain,  east  of  the 
Tigris,  where  his  chariots  and  horsemen,  as  well  as  the 
enormous  numbers  of  his  foot-soldiers,  could  act  with  the 
greatest  advantage. 

6i.  Nevertheless,  the  Macedonian  phalanx*  proved  in- 
vincible, as  usual.  Penetrating  to  the  very  presence  of 
Darius,  who  was  fighting  bravely  at  the  center  of  his 
army,  they  broke  up  the  Persian  lines,  and  the  king  be- 
came a  fugitive.  Two  of  his  officers  wished  to  betray  him 
to  Alexander,  but  finding  themselves  too  closely  pressed, 
they  wounded  him  and  left  him  by  the  road-side  to  die. 
The  Battle  of  Arbela  put  an  end  to  the  Medo-Persian 
Empire,  which  had  lasted  from  the  first  victories  of  Cyrus, 
227  years  (B.  C.  558-331). 

62.  The  Persians  were  a  keen-witted  race,  loving  poetry 
and  art,  though  less  inventive  than  the  Babylonians  or 
the  Greeks.  Our  knowledge  of  their  religion  is  derived 
from  the  Zend  Avesta,  a  very  ancient  collection  of  hymns, 
prayers,  and  directions  for  religious  ceremonies.  It  was 
the  work  of  Zoroaster,  a  Bactrian  prophet,  who  lived  and 
taught  long  before   the   Medes  or  the   Persians  existed  as 


%  <<Xhe  phalanx,  which  formed  the  center  of  Alexander's  army,  was 
the  most  effective  body  of  heavy-armed  troops  known  to  ancient  tactics. 
The  men  were  placed  sixteen  deep,  armed  with  the  sarissa  or  long 
pike,  twenty-four  feet  in  length.  When  set  for  action,  the  spear-?ieads 
of  the  first  six  ranks  projected  from  the  front.  In  receiving  a  charge, 
the  shield  of  each  man,  held  over  the  head  with  the  left  arm,  over- 
lapped that  of  his  neighbor;  so  that  the  entire  body  resembled  a 
monster,  clothed  in  the  shell  of  a  tortoise,  and  the  bristles  of  a  por- 
cupine. So  long  as  it  held  together,  the  phalanx  was  invincible. 
Whether  it  advanced  its  vast  weight  upon  an  enemy,  like  a  solid 
wall  of  steel,  bristling  with  spear-points,  or  kneeling,  with  each  pike 
planted  in  the  ground,  awaited  the  attack,  few  dared  to  encounter  it." 
—  Anc.  Hist.,  \^l'>  P-  'o<^' 


/"imS/AX  CHARACTER.  39 


settled  nations.  This  great  reformer  protested  against  the 
(orrupt  Nature-worsliip  then  prevalent  in  the  East,  and 
hccame  the  founder  of  a  more  spiritual  faith  (§41). 

63.  The  Persians  were  a  frank,  generous,  and  friendly 
l)coplc.  They  hated  fraud  and  debt,  and  even  contemned 
commerce,  as  involving  temptations  to  deceit.  Their  (ireek 
enemies  declared  that  no  one  could  surpass  them  in 
courage.  Their  devotion  to  their  kings  was  admirable, 
until  it  became  so  excessive  as  to  destroy  their  self-respect, 
and  make  them  sacrifice  all  that  was  dearest  to  them  to 
the  lightest  whim  of  their  sovereign.  Thus  when  Cam- 
byses  (§46)  brutally  shot  the  son  of  one  of  his  courtiers, 
tlte  wretched  father  only  complimented  the  king  on  his 
skillful  archery ! 

64.  The  Medo-Persians  excelled  all  other  Asiatics  in 
their  talents  for  government;  and  the  dominion  organized 
by  Darius  I  was  very  different  from  the  loosely  connected 
countries  which  had  been  concpiered  and  ruled  by  Sargon 
and  Nebuchadnezzar.  Darius  and  his  successors  knew 
what  was  passing  in  the  remotest  corners  of  their  empire 
by  means  of  a  myriad  of  spies,  who  were  called  the 
"King's  Eyes"  and  the  "King's  Ears,"  and  by  the  swift 
couriers  who  continually  traveled  over  the  royal  roads. 

Trace,  upon  Maps  i,  2,  and  3,  the  conquests  of  Cyrus,  Cambyses, 
Darius.  The  march  of  Xerxes.  The  sites  of  Alexander's  victories. 
Point  out  Ecbatana,  Cunaxa,  Plataea,  Issus. 

Read  the  story  of  the  Retreat  of  the  Ten  Thousand  in  Xenophon's 
"Anabasis,"  or  in  Crete's  History  of  Creece. 

For  general  Persian  history,  see  Rawlinson's  Ancient  Monarchies, 
Herodotus,  and  Heeren's  Historical  Researches;  Asiatic  Nations, 
Volume  I. 


40  THE  ANCIENT  WORLD. 


NOTES. 

1.  Zoroaster  was  a  great  religious  teacher,  who  lived  in  Bactria,  ac- 
cording to  tlie  best  ancient  accounts,  about  twenty-five  centuries  before 
Christ.  His  system  of  doctrine  was  called  Mazdeism  or  Universal 
Knowledge,  and  it  was  the  purest  and  most  ennobling  of  uninspired 
creeds.  Indeed,  he  declared  that  it  was  revealed  to  him  by  the  "Ex- 
cellent Word "  of  the  Author  of  Light,  and  was  merely  a  revival  of 
primitive  belief,  which  had  been  forgotten  during  the  enslavement  of 
the  Aryan  people  by  an  Arabian  conqueror.  Many  of  the  Aryans  re- 
fused to  accept  his  teaching,  and,  after  violent  contests,  in  which  they 
were  worsted,  took  up  their  march  to  the  south-east,  where,  in  time, 
they  became  the  conquerors  of  India.  The  Indian  and  Iranian  branches 
of  the  Aryan  race  were  thenceforth  distinct. 

The  Zend-Avesta,  or  sacred  writings  attributed  to  Zoroaster,  com- 
prised twenty-one  books,  of  which  only  one  is  now  complete;  but  we 
have  three  collections  of  hymns  and  fragments,  and  a  later  Persian 
translation  of  the  story  of  the  Creation. 

The  distinctive  feature  of  Zoroaster's  teaching  was  the  division  of 
the  world  between  the  two  opposing  principles  of  Light  and  Darkness. 
All  good  and  wholesome  things  were  created  by  Ahura  Mazda,  or 
Ormazd;  all  evil  and  noxious  ones  by  Ahrimanj  the  spirit  of  darkness. 
"If  Ormazd  created  a  paradise,  Ahriman  sent  into  it  a  venomous  ser- 
pent. All  poisonous  plants,  reptiles,  and  insects;  all  sickness,  poverty- 
plague,  war,  famine,  and  earihquakes;  all  unbelief,  witchcraft,  and 
deadly  sins,  were  the  work  of  Ahriman."  Of  course,  there  was  a  cease- 
less conflict  between  the  two  kingdoms,  and  it  was  the  duty  of  every 
man  to  fight  against  the  evil  spirit  by  cultivating  pure  and  healthy 
things,  and  destroying  all  that  were  harmful.  "He  is  a  holy  man," 
Ormazd  is  represented  as  saying,  "who  has  built  a  habitation  on  the 
earth,  in  which  he  maintains  fire,  cattle,  his  wife,  his  children,  and 
flocks  and  herds.  He  who  makes  the  earth  produce  barley,  who  culti- 
vates the  fruits  of  the  soil,  cultivates  purity;  he  advances  the  law  of 
Ormazd  as  much  as  if  he  had  oflTered  a  hundred  sacrifices." 

The  Pei-siaus  agreed  with  the  Hebrews  in  their  belief  in  angels  and 
demons.  Six  great  princes  of  light  served  about  the  throne  of  Ormazd, 
and  beneath  them  were  innumerable  messengers,  who  were  scattered 
about  the  universe  on  errands  of  mercy.  Ahriman  also  had  his  army 
of  spirits,  whom  he  sent  to  work  mischief  in  all  parts  of  the  world. 
They  first  led  man  into  sin,  from  which  Ormazd  sought  to  recover  him 
by  the  revelation  of  his  truth,  and  more  especially  by  the  mediation 
of  Mithra.  This  mysterious  being  was  probably  the  subject  of  some  of 
the  lost  books  of  the  Zend-Avesta;  we  only  know  that  he  was  the  guard- 
ian of  men  during  life,  and  their  judge  after  death,  and  was  more  nearly 
related  to  Ormazd  than  any  angel.  He  had  gained  a  great  victory  over 
Ahriman,  and  had  expelled  him  from  heaven. 

Although  good  and  evil  were  so  nearly  balanced  in  the  present  con- 
dition of  the  world,  yet  devout  Zoroastrtans  believed  that  the  Author 
of  Good  only  was  eternal,  and  that  at  some  far  distant  day  all  men  would 
be  converted  into  willing  subjects  of  light  and  truth.  "  Evil  then  should 
be  finally  conquered  and  destroyed ;  the  creation  should  become  as  pure 
as  on  its  first  day,  and  Aliriman  should  disappear  forever." 

An  interesting  passage  of  the  Vendidad  describes  fourteen  stages  in 
the  progress  of  the  western  Aryans,  from  the  mountain  region  of  Thibet 
to  their  final  settlement  in  Persia.  At  every  place  Ahriman  sent  upon 
them  some  disease  or  other  calamity,  to  compel  them  to  go  farther.  In 
Ragha,  or  northern  Media,  the  twelfth  stage  of  their  journey,  they  en- 
countered a  large  Turanian  population,  their  ancient  enemies.  One 
body  of  immigrants  remained  in  this  region,  and  a  thousand  years  of 
war  ended  in  the  establishment  of  the  Aryan  kingdom  of  Media;  but, 
in  the  meantime,  the  religion  which  their  fathers  had  learned  from 
Zoroaster,  became  sadly  corrupted  by  mixture  with  the  serpent-worship 
of  the  Turanians,  the  idolatry  of  the  neighboring  Assyrians,  and  the 
Chaldffian  adoration  of  the  seven  planets.  To  this  day  the  Yezidees,  or 
devil-worshipers,  of  the  same  region,  profess  the  dual  belief  that  Zo- 
roaster taught,  but  worship  only  the  evil  which  they  fear,  because,  they 
say,  the  Good  Spirit,  being  already  kind  and  indulgent,  does  not  need 
to  be  conciliated. 


NOTES.  41 


2.  ** Athens  wa8  the  inothor-city  of  the  lonio  states,  and  the  Athen- 
ians were  (lis|H>se4l  to  syinpiithixe  with  tlio  loniaiiH  iim  their  kiiiKmen 
and  eolonist.s,"  Tliey  liml,  nion'ovor,  tlieir  own  Krlevaneo  In  tlu;  rc- 
<«>i)tion  of  tlu'ir  exiled  tyrant  llippias  (iilll)  at  tlie  Persian  conrt.  Hut, 
tlu>nnl»  disposed  to  favor  and  restore  Hippias,  Darius  does  not  appear 
to  luive  tliouKld  tlie  tyrant's  late  tellow-eiti/ens  worth  renienil>erlnK 
until  they  ^ave  him  eause.  Wlien  lie  heard  of  the  burninn  ol  Sanlis.hy 
!!u'  aliii'd  (ireeks,  the   kiuK  exelaimetl   with  eonteniptuous  rage.  "The 

Mlu'iiians!  who  are  thvuf^  When  ho  was  Informed,  he  seized  )iis  Ik>w, 
iiul,  sliooting  an  ari'()W  hi^h  into  the  uir,  he  eried,  "Oh,  supreme  (iod, 
tirant  me  tt>  take  vengeanee  upon  the  Athenians!"  And  every  day  at 
dinner,  an  attendant  was  ordered  to  say  tliree  times,  "fcjire,  remember 
the  Atlienians." 

3.  An  intcrestiuK  record  of  the  early  years  of  Dnrlus's  reign  has  been 
found  eut  on  a  perpendieular  rook-tablet  of  Ik^hlstun,  the  face  of  the 
elitt"  having  been  snuH)thed  for  the  purpose.  It  beai-s  four  sets  of  In- 
seriptions.  one  of  which  is  ascribed  to  Semlraniis  (^11,  and  note);  but 
the  most  Important  is  in  the  words  of  "Darius  the  King."  For  a  U)ng 
time  after  this  was  known  to  exist,  it  was  supposed  to  be  wholly  out 
of  reach  for  purposes  of  information;  for  it  was  300  feet  from  the  base 
of  the  mountain-wall,  and  the  reader  must  be  drawn  up  with  ropes  by 
a  windlass  placed  on  the  summit.  This  perilous  feat  was  performed 
many  times  l)y  Colonel  Rawlinson,  of  the  British  army,  then  holding 
an  official  |)ost  at  Hagdad.  lie  si)ent  some  weeks  in  obtaining  a  copy  of 
the  pompous  sent»>iices  which  Darius  liad  ordered  to  be  inscribed  in  three 
hiiiguages,  IN-i-sian.  Babylonian,  and  Scythic,  and  which  scholars  have 
sim-e,  with  iiiciv<iibk'  patience,  industry,  and  learning,  succeeded  in 
deciphering.  Their  J^nglish  version  may  be  read  in  Kawlinson's  "Her- 
odotus," Vol.  II,  Appendix. 

4.  Their  Persian  allies  were  scattered;  they  were  in  the  heart  of  an 
unknown  and  hostile  country,  two  thousand  miles  from  home,  and 
surrounded  by  the  victorious  army  of  Artaxerxes.  The  wily  Tissapher- 
nes,  who  had  been  rewarded  with  the  dominions  of  Cyrus,  detained 
them  nearly  a  month  by  false  pretenses  of  negotiation ;  and,  hav- 
ing le<l  them  as  far  as  the  head  waters  of  the  Tigris,  gained  po-'^ses- 
sion  of  all  their  offlcers,  whom  he  caused  to  be  put  to  deatli.  At  this 
crisis,  the  Athenian  Xenophon  called  together  the  principal  Greeks,  at 
midnight,  and  urged  the  election  of  new  officers,  who  should  lead  them 
back  to  their  native  land.  The  suggestion  was  adopted;  five  generals 
were  chosen,  of  whom  Xenophon  was  one,  and,  by  break  of  day,  the 
army  had  been  mustered  for  its  homeward  marcli. 

Their  course  lay  over  the  taV^le-lands  of  Armenia,  where  many  per- 
ished in  the  freezing  north  winds,  or  were  blinded  by  the  unusual  glare 
of  snow. 

Here  is  Xenophon's  own  account  of  their  arrival  in  sight  of  the  Black 
Sea.  "On  the  fifth  day  they  came  to  the  mountain;  and  the  name  of 
it  was  Thoclies.  When  the  men  who  were  in  the  front  had  mounted 
the  height,  and  looked  down  upon  the  sea,  a  great  shout  proceeded  from 
them;  and  Xenophon  and  the  rear-guartl,  on  hearing  ft,  thought  that 
some  new  enemies  were  assailing  the  front;  for  in  the  rear^  too,  the 
people  from  the  country  that  they  had  burned  were  following  them, 
and  the  rear-guard,  by  placing  an  ambuscade,  had  killed  some,  and 
taken  others  prisoners,  and  had  captured  about  twenty  shields,  made 
of  raw  ox-hide  with  the  hair  on.  But,  as  the  noise  still  increased,  and 
drew  nearer,  and  as  those  who  came  up  from  time  to  time  kept  run- 
ning at  full  speed  to  join  those  who  were  continually  shouting,  the 
cries  becoming  louder  as  the  men  became  more  numerous,  it  appeared 
to  Xenophon  that  it  must  be  something  of  very  great  moment. 

"Mounting  his  horse,  therefore,  and  taking  with  him  Lycius  and  the 
cavalry,  he  hastened  forward  to  give  aid,  when  presently  they  heard 
the  soldiers  shouting,  'The  sea!  tlie  sea!'  and  cheering  on  one  another. 
They  all  then  began  to  run,  the  rear-guanl  as  well  as  the  rest,  and  the 
baggage-cattle  and  horses  were  put  to  their  speed;  and,  when  they  had 
all  arrived  at  the  top,  the  men  embraced  each  other  and  tiieir  gener- 
als and  captains,  with  tears  in  their  eyes.  Suddenly,  whoever  It  was 
that  suggested  it,  the  soldiers  brought  stones,  and  raised  a  large  mound, 
on  wiiich  they  laid  a  number  of  raw  ox-hides,  staves,  and  shields  taken 
from  the  Gwemy.''''— Anabasis,  Book  IV,  CTi.  VII. 


CHAPTER  V. 


AFRICAN    STATES  AND    COLONIES. 

FRICA   is,    of   all    the    continents, 
least   fit   for    the    home   of  man. 
One  fifth  of  its  surface  is  covered 
by    a    sea    of    sand,    and    the    interior 
consists   often   of   marshes  and  tangled 
*<7V      ^  forests.     Its  northern  coast,  however,  is 

V^_P^  among  the  most  favored  regions  of  the 

globe.      Here    are    the    great    Moorish 
corn-fields  which  once  fed  the  hungry 
Vy^    Si^:^^/    millions  of  Rome;  while  the  Nile  valley 
/       1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1       \     i^    the    north-east   has    sustained,    from 
the  earliest   times,  a  swarming  popula- 
tion.    This  great  river,  in  its  overflow, 
spreads   every  year   over   the   lowlands 
a   new  deposit   of   fertile    soil,  so   that 
the    farmer   has  only  to  cast  his  grain 
upon   the   retiring  waters,  and   a   plentiful  harvest   springs 
up  without  further  tillage.     No  wonder  that  the  old  idol- 
aters worshiped  the  Nile ! 

66.  Egypt. — Long  before  our  oldest  records  were  writ- 
ten, Hamites,  from  south-western  Asia,  had  settled  in  the 
valley  of  the  Nile  (§7).  At  first  they  formed  a  multitude 
of  petty  states,  but  gradually  these  became  united  into  the 
two  kingdoms  of  Upper  and  Lower  Egypt.  Now  and  then 
some  powerful  monarch,  reigning  at  Thebes  or  Memphis, 
reduced  both  kingdoms  under  his  sway,  and  reigned  from 
the  Isle  of  Elephantis  to  the  sea. 

67.  The  Egyptians  were  great  builders,  and  their  pyra- 

(42) 


Cleopatra's  Cartouch. 


EG  YPTIAN  11  IS  rOR  K  43 

mids,  temples,  and  palaces  seem  destined  to  stand  as  long 
is  the  earth  itself  endures.  More  than  this,  they  were 
great  writers,  and,  now  that  the  key  to  their  language  has 
been  found,  we  may  read  their  characters  and  daily  em- 
ployments, their  thoughts  about  life,  death,  and  immortality, 
ahnost  as  familiarly  as  those  of  our  own  ancestors. 

68.  Egyptian  history,  before  the  Persian  conquest,  is 
divided  into  three  Periods: 

I.  The  Old  Empire,  from  unknown  antiquity  to  1900 
B.  C. 

II.  The  Middle  Empire,  or  that  of  the  Shepherd  Kings, 
1900- 1525  B.  C. 

III.  The  New  Empire,  1525-525. 

During  these  three  periods,  26  Dynasties,  or  families  of 
kings,  are  on  record;  but  sometimes  two,  three,  or  even 
five  of  these  were  reigning  at  once  in  different  parts  of 
the  country.  The  kings  of  the  Fourth  Dy- 
nasty built  most  of  the  pyramids.  These  '  ^'*'*°  ^^^' 
enormous  masses  of  stone  face  the  four  main  points  of 
the  compass;  and  one,  known  as  the  Great  Pyramid,  is  so 
delicately  adjusted  for  observations  of  the  heavens  that 
some  wise  men  believe  it  to  have  been  built  by  Divine 
direction.  The  useful  and  elegant  arts  made  great  pro- 
gress under  the  Pyramid-Kings.  The  copper-mines  of  the 
peninsula  of  Sinai  were  worked  chiefly  by  captives  taken 
in  war;  and  the  pictures  on  the  tombs  indicate  a  refined 
and  intelligent  life  among  the  people. 

6g.  Egypt  was  soon  divided  into  five  separate  kingdoms, 
and  these,  one  by  one,  became  the  prey  of  invading  tribes 
from  Asia,  led  by  the  Shepherd  Kings.^  These  rude  and 
ignorant  people  made  slaves  of  the  Egyptians,  and  arrested 
the  progress  of  arts  and  sciences  for  400  years. 

70.  At  length  a  deliverer  was  found  in  the  Theban 
Amo'sis,  who  rallied  the  spirit  of  the  Egyptians  and  drove 
out  the  intruders.     He  became  king  of  the  whole  country, 


44  THE  ANCIENT  WORLD. 

and  founder  of  the  Eighteenth  Dynasty. ^  For  800  years 
Egypt  continued  to  be  a  united  kingdom,  and  enjoyed  the 
brightest  period  of  its  history.  The  government,  though 
strong,  was  mild  to  its  native  subjects,  but  probably  cruel 
to  the  captive  Hebrews,  whose  lives  were  made  bitter  with 
hard  bondage  (§31)  in  the  brick-kilns,  and  who  built  many 
of  the  vast  temples  and  palaces  for  which  this  period  is 
celebrated  (Exodus,  i:  7-14). 

71.  Greatest  of  Egyptian  monarchs  was  Rameses  II, 
who  made  conquests  in  Asia,  Africa,  and  Europe,  and 
brought  home  a  great  train  of  captives  to  build  new 
monimients  of  his  glory.  Fearing  the  increasing  numbers 
of  the  race  already  enslaved,  he  ordered  every  Hebrew 
boy  to  be  thrown  into  the  Nile.  It  was  probably  his  son, 
Meneph'thah,  who  suffered  the  ten  judgments  of  God  for 
his  oppressions,  and  finally  let  the  Israelites  go  out  from 
the  land  (Ex.  vii :  19-xi:  5;  xii :  29-33).  For  twenty 
years  the  buildings  ceased,  and  the  glory  of  the  Egyptians 
was  long  in  decline. 

72.  During  the  seventh  century  B.  C.  the  country  was 
ruled  by  Assyria  (§14);  but  when  that  empire  fell,  Psam- 
met'ichus,^  and  his  yet  greater  son,  Ne'cho,  revived  the 
Egyptian  power.  By  conquering  Phoenicia,  Necho  gained 
power  on  the  sea,  and  the  continent  of  Africa  was  first 
circumnavigated  by  his  fleets.  The  story  of  the  successful 
navigators  was  scarcely  believed  by  the  ancient  world, 
because  they  declared  that  in  rounding  the  southern  cape, 
they  had  seen  the  sun  to  the  northward.  With  our  better 
system  of  astronomy  we  find  this  circumstance  a  strong 
confirmation  of  their  truthfulness.  Necho  reigned  for  three 
years  over  all  the  country  between  the  Mediterranean  and 
Euphrates;  but  he  was  then  defeated  by  Nebuchadnezzar 
(§19)  in  the  great  battle  of  Car'chemish,  and  lost  all  his 
possessions  in  Asia.  His  successors  paid  tribute  to  Baby- 
lon, and,  when  freed  from  that  yoke,  they  soon  fell  under 


RELIGION  OF  THE  EG  VPTIANS,  45 

the  greater  power  of  the  Persians.     Egypt  was  conquered 
l)y  Cambyses,  and  became  a  part  of  the  Persian  Empire. 

73.  The  Rkmgion  of  the  Egyptians  contained  some  true 
and  noble  principles,  mingled  with  a  disgusting  idolatry. 
They  believed  in  a  future  life/  and  that  its  happiness 
depended  on  their  well  doing  while  here.  Their  tombs  were 
always  in  sight,  in  the  sandstone  ridges  which  bounded  the 
narrow  valley  of  the  Nile.  Between  the  city  of  the  living 
and  that  of  the  dead  lay  a  sacred  lake,  before  passing 
which  to  his  final  rest,  every  man,  whether  king  or  peasant, 
had  to  be  approved  by  the  judges.  If  his  life  was  found 
to  have  been  unworthy,  he  was  forever  shut  out  from  the 
scpulcher  of  his  fathers.  It  was  believed  that  the  soul 
also  must  appear  before  a  judgment-seat  of  the  gods,  and 
only  when  sealed  as  ''justified,"  could  it  enter  the  abode 
of  the  blessed. 

74.  If  acquitted  by  the  judges,  the  body  was  embalmed 
and  returned  to  the  house  of  its  earthly  abode,  to  be  kept 
at  least  a  month,  and  sometimes  even  a  year,  while  joyful 
feasts  were  held  in  its  honor.  It  then  passed  the  sacred 
lake,  and  was  laid  away  in  a  tomb  which  was  more  richly 
ornamented  than  the  home  of  the  earthly  life.  In  late 
years  the  repose  of  these  Egyptian  tombs  has  been  broken, 
and  many  ''mummies" — the  mortal  forms  of  the  men  and 
women  who  walked  about  the  streets  of  Thebes  or  Heli- 
op'olis  thousands  of  years  ago — have  been  added  to  the 
"curiosities"  of  our  museums. 

75.  The  Egyptian  priests  were  philosophers,  who  knew 
a  great  deal  more  than  they  chose  to  tell  the  people. 
They  believed  in  one  Supreme  God,  and  thought  it  impious 
to  represent  Him  by  any  work  of  human  hands;  but  they 
made  Him  known  to  the  multitude  under  various  names 
and  attributes.  As  the  Creator,  he  was  Phthah;  as  the 
Revealer,  he  was  Amun;  as  the  Benefactor  and  the  Judge 
of  men,  he  was  Osiris,  etc.     Even  plants  and  animals  were 


46  TITE   ANCIENT  WORLD. 

supposed  to  possess  some  portion  of  his  life,  and  were 
accordingly  worshiped  by  the  ignorant.  Thus  Memphis 
had  its  bull,  Apis,  which  was  regarded  as  a  living  symbol 
of  Osiris.  It  was  worshiped  in  life,  and  buried  after  death 
with  great  pomp  and  solemnity.  Heliopolis,  likewise,  had 
its  sacred  calf,  Ombos  and  Arsinoe  their  crocodiles,  Thebes 
and  Sais  their  sheep,  all  objects  of  local  adoration.  Every 
year  at  the  rising  of  the  Nile  a  seven  days'  feast  was  held 
in  honor  of  Osiris,  the  preserver  and  benefactor  of  men. 

76.  Castes.  —  The  priests  constituted  the  highest  rank 
in  the  kingdom,  and  by  their  knowledge,  especially  of 
physical  science,  they  exercised  great  power  over  the 
common  people.  Not  only  religious  services,  but  all  the 
learned  professions  were  entrusted  to  them.  Their  medical 
skill  was  widely  famed,  so  that  kings  of  Assyria  sent  to 
Egypt  for  physicians.  Their  power  over  body  and  soul 
was  equally  great,  for,  as  the  earthly  judges  of  the  dead, 
they  could  refuse  to  any  man  the  passport  by  which  he 
hoped  to  enter  the  abode  of  Osiris. 

77.  Next  below  the  priests  stood  the  soldier -caste. 
During  intervals  of  service,  the  soldiers  lived  on  their 
own  lands,  each  man  having  an  allotment  of  about  six 
acres.  The  kings  sprang  either  from  the  priestly  or  the 
military  order,  usually  the  former,  and  in  any  case  each 
monarch  was  made  a  -  priest  as  part  of  the  ceremony  of 
his  coronation.  He  bore  the  title  Phrah  (Pharaoh),  signi- 
fying the  sun;  and  as  representing  the  god  of  light,  was 
head  of  the  state  religion  not  less  than  of  the  monarchy. 

78.  Below  the  two  privileged  classes  were  the  great 
mass  of  the  people,  divided  into  four  castes :  farmers, 
boatman,  artisans,  and  herdsmen.  They  owned  no  land, 
at  least  after  the  time  of  Joseph,  the  Hebrew  prime- 
minister,  who  during  a  famine  required  all  proprietors  to 
sell  their  acres  for  food,  holding  them  afterward  merely 
as  tenants   of  the  king  (Gen.  xlvii :  18-26).     The  system 


CARTHAGE  FOUNDED.  47 

of  castes  crushed  all  ambition  among  the  people.     Every 

man  was  compelled  to  follow  his  father's  occupation,  and 
when  the  labor  market  became  over  crowded,  the  king 
liad  only  to  project  some  grand,  but  often  useless  work, 
iiul  draft  thousands  of  men  into  the  cpiarries  to  draw 
clones  for  a  new  pyramid.  One  huge  stone  required  the 
hibor  of  2,000  men,  three  years,  for  its  transportation. 

79.  In  the  crowded  cities  of  Egypt  many  industries  were 
( arricd  on.  Vases  of  glass  and  porcelain,  and  engraved 
L^cms,  still  exist  to  prove  the  skill  and  industry  of  this 
ancient  people.  They  excelled  all  other  nations  in  the 
fineness  of  their  linen  fabrics  and  in  embroidery.  Doubt- 
less the  Hebrew  women  learned' of  them  the  art  by  which 
iliey  contributed  to  the  beauty  of  the  Tabernacle  (Exodus 
xxvi :  36;    XXXV  :  25). 

80.  The  genius  of  the  Egyptians  is  chiefly  shown  in 
their  architecture,  which,  for  grandeur  of  proportions  and 
the  masses  of  material  employed,  has  never  been  equaled. 
In  the  great  Hall  of  Karnak,  the  whole  Cathedral  of  Notre 
Dame  could  stand  without  touching  either  walls  or  ceiling; 
and  the  Temple  of  Karnak  is  connected  with  the  palace  of 
Luxor  by  an  avenue  of  1,000  colossal  sphinxes.  Egyptian 
sculpture  was  huge  rather  than  beautiful;  yet  there  is  an 
imposing  dignity  in  the  gigantic  figures  of  kings  who  guard 
the  entrances  of  some  temples.  In  painting,  the  Egyptians 
aimed  to  represent  facts  rather  than  to  please  the  imagina- 
tion; and  though  the  pictures  in  their  tombs  afford  most 
interesting  views  of  the  daily  life  of  the  people,  they  are 
hardly  to  be  considered  as  works  of  art. 

81.  Carthage. — The  numerous  Phoenician  colonies  have 
already  been  mentioned  (§23).  Of  these,  the  most  im- 
l)ortant  was  Carthage,  a  daughter  city  of  Tyre,  founded 
about  850  B.  C.  The  neighboring  African  tribes  were 
friendly,  and  the  new  city  grew  rapidly  in  size  and  wealth. 
Every  known  sea  was  penetrated  by  her  ships;  the  Atlantic 


48  THE  ANCIENT  WORLD. 

coast  was  explored  from  Norway  to  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  and  the  products  of  the  whole  ancient  world  filled 
her  markets.  The  destruction  of  the  mother  city  by 
Nebuchadnezzar  ( §  24 )  threw  nearly  all  of  the  western 
commerce  of  Tyre  into  the  hands  of  the  Carthaginians. 
All  the  Phoenician  settlements  in  the  western  Mediterranean 
acknowledged  Carthage  as  their  leader,  while  her  own 
colonies  were  scattered  over  Sicily,  Sardinia,  Spain,  western 
Africa,  Madeira,  and  the  Canary  Islands. 

82.  The  government  of  Carthage  was  copied,  with  little 
alteration,  from  that  of  Tyre.  In  place  of  the  king  were 
two  officers  called  Suffetes  or  Judges,  elected  for  life 
from  certain  noble  families.  They  were  aided,  or  perhaps 
oftener  opposed,  by  a  grand  council  of  several  hundreds  of 
citizens,  from  which  committees  were  chosen  to  administer 
the  various  departments  of  state.  Another  Council  of 
One  Hundred  was  afterwards  appointed,  before  which  all 
generals,  returning  from  war,  had  to  render  account  of 
their  actions;  and  so  severe  were  its  judgments,  that  an 
unfortunate  commander  sometimes  chose  to  kill  himself 
rather  than  appear  before  it. 

83.  The  religion  of  Tyre,  of  course,  descended  to  her 
daughter,  with  the  same  gloomy  and  cruel  observances. 
In  times  of  calamity,  children  were  thrown  into  the  heated 
arms  of  a  brazen  image  of  Moloch,  whence  they  rolled 
into  a  furnace  of  burning  coals.  No  military  movement 
was  made  without  the  direction  of  a  prophet  or  diviner; 
and  the  progress  of  a  battle  was  often  interrupted  while 
the  general  offered  sacrifices. 

84.  Three  hundred  years  after  her  foundation,  Carthage 
came  into  fierce  collision  with  the  Greek  cities  of  Sicily  and 
southern  Italy,  and  destroyed  one  of  their  fleets  in  a  naval 
battle.  The  Greeks  were  great  traders,  and,  therefore, 
rivals  of  the  Carthaginians.  In  509  B.  C,  Carthage  made 
a    friendly  treaty  with  the  infant  republic  of  Rome,  which 


NOTES,  49 


seemed  less  likely  to  become  her  rival,  as  the  Romans 
despised  trade,  dividing  their  attention  between  farming 
and  war  with  their  Italian  neighbors.  They  grew  to  be, 
liowever,  the  bitterest  enemies,  and  finally  the  destroyers 
of  Carthage.  But  the  story  of  these  later  days  will  be 
more  conveniendy  told  in  the  history  of  Rome.  See  Ch. 
XIV. 

Point  out,  on  Maps  i  and  5,  the  course  of  the  Nile.  Thebes. 
Memphis.     Carthage. 

Read,  concerning  Egypt,  Wilkinson's  Manners  and  Customs  of 
the  Ancient  Egyptians  ;  Herodotus,  Book  II  ;  Brugsch  Bey's  Egypt 
under  the  Pharaohs;  Rawlinson's  History  of  Egypt,  and  Palmer's 
Egyptian  Chronicles;  Eber's  Uarda  and  Egyptian  Princess.  Concern- 
ing Carthage,  read  Heeren's  Historical  Researches ;  African  Nations. 

NOTES. 

1.  The  best  authorities  consider  it  "  in  the  highest  degree  probable  " 
that  it  was  the  last  of  the  Shepherd  Kings,  Apepi,  who  raised  Joseph 
out  of  prison  to  be  his  prime  minister  (pee  Gen.  xli).  "The  eleva^ 
tion  of  a  foreigner  and  a  Semite  to  so  exalted  an  office,  is  thought  to 
be  far  more  likely  under  Hyksos  Than  under  native  Egyptian  rule;  the 
marriage  with  the  daughter  of  the  high-priest  of  Hellopolis  to  be  less 
surprising,  and  the  Egyptian  words  and  names  connected  with  the  his- 
tory to  point  to  this  period." 

If  this  be  so,  the  "sheplierds"  must  have  become  civilized  to  a  great 
degree  by  the  example  of  the  people  whom  they  liad  enslaved.  "  For,*' 
continues  Prof.  Rawlinson,  "the  Pharaoh  of  Joseph  is  no  rude  and 
savage  nomad,  but  a  mild,  civilized,  and  somewhat  luxurious  king. 
He  holds  a  grand  court  in  a  city  not  named,  has  a  number  of  cup-bear- 
ers and  confectioners,  sits  upon  a  throne  or  rides  in  a  chariot,  wears  a 
ring  on  his  hand,  has  vestures  of  fine  linen  and  collars  of  gold  to  be- 
stow on  those  whom  he  favors,  uses  the  Egyptian  language,  and  is,  in 
fact,  undistinguishable  from  a  native  Egyptian  monarch.  He  does  not 
oppress  any  of  his  subjects.  On  the  contrary,  he  sustains  them  in  a 
time  of  scarcity  when  he  becomes  their  landlord,  takes  a  moderate 
rent,  is  especially  lenient  to  the  priests;  and,  when  he  receives  the  Is- 
raelites, even  concedes  to  his  subjects' prejudice  against  'shepherds.'  If 
he  is  by  birth  and  descent  one  of  the  Hyksos,  he  has  adopted  all  the 
ordinary  habits  and  modes  of  life  of  the  Egyptians;  he  is  even,  it  would 
seem,  tolerant  of  their  religion." 

It  can  easily  be  understood  that  when  the  foreign  rulers  had  been 
cast  out,  the  favor  in  whicli  the  Hebrews  had  been  held  by  them  would 
give  way  to  a  very  different  treatment. 

2.  The  greatest  king  of  the  Eighteenth  Dynasty  was  Thothmes  III., 
who  was  a  mighty  conqueror,  both  by  land  and  sea.  The  French  his- 
torian  Lenormant  infors  from  an  inscription  at  Thebes  "that  the  fleets 
of  the  great  Pharaoh,  after  having  first  conquered  Cyprus  and  Crete,  had 
further  subjected  to  his  scepter  the  islands  of  the  southern  archipelago. 
a  considerable  portion  of  the  seaboard  of  Greece  and  Asia  Minor,  and 
even,  perhaps,  the  lower  extremity  of  Italy."  He  concludes  "  from  the 
same  monument,  that  the  war-vessels  of  Thothmes  III.  penetrated  jM-etty 
frequently  into  the  waters  of  the  Black  Sea,  where  Herodotus  pretends 

Hist.-4. 


50  THE  ANCIENT   WORLD. 

that  the  Egyptians  had  before  this  founded  a  colony  in  Colchis  for  the 
working  of  the  mines.  .  .  .  Memorials  of  the  reign  of  Thothraes  III. 
have  been  found  at  Cherchell,  in  Algeria;  and  it  is  not  at  all  impossi- 
ble that  they  really  mark  the  limit  whereto  the  power  of  this  prince 
extended  on  the  north  coast  of  Africa."  English  and  German  Egyptol- 
ogists read  the  names  in  the  inscriptions  differently,  but  there  is  no 
doubt  that  Thothmes  ruled  the  coasts  of  Syria,  Cilicia,  and  Cyprus,  as 
well  as  of  Egypt.  By  his  great  buildings  "he  has  left  the  impress  of 
his  presence  in  Egypt  more  widely  than  almost  any  other  of  her  kings, 
while,  at  the  same  time,  he  has  supplied  to  the  great  capitals  of  the 
modern  world  their  most  striking  Egyptian  monuments.  The  memo- 
rial which  he  erected  to  commemorate  his  conquest  of  the  land  of  Na- 
harain  (Mesopotamia),  looks  down  upon  the  place  of  the  Atmeidan  in 
the  city  of  Constantine;  one  of  his  great  Theban  obelisks  rears  itself  in 
the  midst  of  the  Piazza  in  front  of  the  Church  of  St.  John  Lateran,  in 
Rome;  while  the  twin  spires,  which  he  set  up  before  the  temple  of  the 
Sun  at  Heliopolis,  after  long  adorning  Alexandria,  have  been  conveyed, 
respectively,  to  London  and  New  York."— i^atf^^■n5on. 

3.  Esarhaddon  (§  14)  divided  Egypt  into  twenty  districts,  over  which 
he  placed  twenty  rulers,— some  Assyrian,  some  native  Egyptian,  but  all 
subject  to  his  commands.  One  of  these  was  Psammetichus  or  Psamatik, 
a  Libyan,  king  of  Sais.  The  powerful  Ethiopian  king,  Tirhakeh,  who 
had  previously  ruled  Egypt,  was  driven  away  to  the  southward.  But 
"no  sooner  did  Esarhaddon,  in  B.  C.  669,  show  signs  of  physical  decay, 
than  Tirhakeh  issued  from  his  Ethiopian  fastnesses,  descended  the  val- 
ley of  the  Nile,  expelled  the  kings  set  up  by  Esarhaddon,  and  reestab- 
lished his  aul  hority  over  the  whole  country.  The  kings  fled  to  Nineveh, 
where  they  found  Asshur-bani-pal,  the  son  of  Esarhaddon,  established 
in  power.  Learning  from  them  what  had  happened,  he  at  once  put  his 
forces  in  motion,  and,  in  B.  C.  668,  led  them  through  Syria  and  Pales- 
tine into  Egypt,  defeated  the  Egyptians  and  Ethiopians  in  a  great  bat- 
tle near  Karbanit,  stormed  Mempliis  and  Thebes,  and  forced  Tirhakeh 
once  more  to  take  refuge  in  his  own  proper  country.  After  this  he  re- 
tired, having  first  reinstated  the  princes  in  their  former  governments 
and  strengthened  the  Assyrian  garrisons  in  the  various  towns." 

A  new  revolt  was  followed  by  a  new  invasion,  and  so  Egypt  contin- 
ued to  be  "a  shuttle-cock  between  Ethiopia  and  Assyria  for  some  ten 
or  twelve  years."  The  perpetual  advances  and  retreats  of  hostile  armies 
"half  ruined  the  towns,  and  carried  desolation  over  the  broad  and 
fertile  plains  on  either  side  of  the  river.  The  great  city  of  Thebes,  long 
the  admiration  of  the  Greeks,  and  probably  for  many  years  quite  the 
most  magnificent  city  in  the  world,  passed  into  a  by-word  for  depression 
and  decay."— Read  Nahum  III,  8,  9. 

In  this  time  of  trouble  and  weakness,  Psamatik,  king  of  Sais,  found 
his  opportunity  to  reestablish  the  Egyptian  monarchy.  With  the  aid 
of  a  body  of  soldiers,  mostly  Carians  and  Ionian  Greeks,  sent  by  King 
Gyges  of  Lydia  [g28),  he  defeated  the  forces  of  the  vassal-kings,  and 
"proclaihied  himself  'lord  of  the  two  Egypts,  the  upper  and  the  lower 
country.'" 

"  The  introduction  into  Egypt  of  a  large  body  of  Asiatic  Greeks,  war- 
like, and  yet  civilized  and  refined,  and  the  close  relationship  in  which 
they  henceforth  stood  to  the  king,  were  events  of  considerable  impor- 
tance in  their  effect  upon  Egyptian  art,  manners,  and  habits  of  thought. 
The  spirit  of  inquiry  was  suddenly  awakened  in  the  inert  Egyptian 
mind,  which  had  hitherto  been  content  to  work  in  a  traditional  groove, 
and  had  eschewed  all  needless  speculations.  Psammetichus  himself 
had  his  curiosity  aroused  and  began  experiments  and  investigations.  .  . 
A  question  having  been  raised  as  to  the  relative  antiquity  of  different 
races  of  mankind,  Psammetichus  had  two  children  isolated  from  their 
species,  brought  up  by  a  dumb  herdsman,  and  suckled  by  a  goat,  in 
order  to  see  what  language  they  would  speak,  since  he  presumed  that, 
if  they  never  heard  a  word  uttered,  they  would  revert  to  the  primitive 
type  of  speech.  The  result  of  his  experiment  was  thought  to  prove  the 
Phrygians  to  be  the  most  ancient  nation." 

"It  would  seem  that  another  consequence  was  the  opening  of  froe 
communication  and  commercial  intercourse  between  Egypt  and  Asiatic 
Greece,  such  as  had  certainly  not  existed  previously.  The  Egyptians 
had  hitherto  been  jealous  of   foreigners,  and  scarcely  allowed  them  to 


NOTES,  51 


land  on  their  ooiisU  Now  Oreok  tnule,  aiul  oven  Greek  RettlemcntA.  were 
oncouraKtMi."  MerohantN  from  MlU'tus  establlHlKHl  two  cities  at  Jllfrorent 
mouths  of  tlie  Nile,  of  wliieli.  Naueratis,  tlie  more  westerly,  heejune  an 
important  seat  «)f  (ireek  <'omtnen'e.  Here  Soh)n  resided  (iurinvc  tliose 
vt'ars  of  liis  t-arly  mantuxMi.  wJien  lie  was  not  only  repairing  his  injured 
tortune,  l>ut  enrieldnn  his  mind  by  oi)servatlons  of  laws  and  eustoins 
wliieli  mlnlit  l>e  made  ust'ful  to  his  fellow-«-iti/-ens."— See  n<»le,  j).(W. 

\\y  Ids  employment  of  foreign  soldiers,  I'sjtmmetl(*hus  gHve  great  of- 
i\nse  to  the  Kgyptlan  warrior-class,  wl»o  seceded  to  the  numl)er  of 
JtKMHK),  and,  pjussmg  tl>rougli  Nul)ia  and  Ethiopia,  estat)lis|jed  a  military 
i»»lony  on  the  White  Nile,  only  nine  degrees  from  the  equator. 

4.  "How  it  happened "  — snys  Prof.  Rawlinson,  In  his  History  of 
Iluypt— "  that  In  Egyptian  thought  the  future  life  occupied  so  large  a 
s| >:((•♦',  and  wivs  felt  to  be  so  real  and  so  substantial,  wldle  among  the 
ll(l)rcws 'an*!  the  otlier  Semites  it  remained,  even  after  contact  with 
i-.^iypt,  so  vague  and  shadowy,  is  a  mystery  Mhich  it  is Jmpossil)le  to 
IHiutrate.  We  can  only  wiy  tind  so  it  was:  tlnU  from  n  time  antcrl«)r 
to  Joseph,  or  even  .\l)raluim,  the  children  of  Mizraim,  in  their  bright  and 
fertile  land  on  either  side  of  the  strong-llowing  Nile,  thought  as  much 
of  the  future  life  as  of  the  present;  that  their  religious  ideas  clustered 
rather  about  tlie  tomb  than  about  the  temple;  and  that  their  worship, 
domestic  nither  than  national,  though  it  included,  among  its  objects, 
some  l)eings  regarded  as  wholly  divine,  was  directed  esi)e<rially  toward 
the  si)irits Of  those  wiio  liad  Ixen  their  fathers  in  the  llesli." 

"There  was  another  worship,  also  of  a  practical  diaraeter.  which  be- 
longs almost  certainly  ii>  this  early  period— the  worship  of  the  reigning 
monarch.  Eadi  kin^:  \\.i>  k  u'lnded  as  an  incarnation  of  Horus,  was 
a.ssigne<i  a  priest  or  iniests,  and  a  lemnle;  or,  at  any  rate,  a  chapel. 
He  was  styled  'the  victorious  Horus,'  'the  divine  lord,'  'the  ever-liv- 
ing.' His  subjects  worshiped  him,  not  only  during  liis  life,  but  after 
his  death." 

ni(Mlorus  of  Sicily  wrote  of  Egypt  in  the  first  century  before  Christ: 
"The  inhabitants  of  this  region  consider  the  term  of  man's  present  life 
to  i)e  utterly  insignificant,  and  devote  by  tar  the  largest  part  of  their 
attention  to  the  life  after  death.  They  call  the  habitations  of  the  living 
'places  of  sojourn,'  since  we  occupy  them  but  for  a  short  time;  but,  to 
the  sepulchers  of  the  dead  they  give  the  name  of  'eternal  abodes,'  since 
men  will  live  in  the  other  world  for  an  indefinite  period.  P'or  these 
reasons  they  pay  little  heed  to  the  construction  of  their  houses,  while 
in  what  concerns  burial  they  place  no  limit  to  the  extravagance  of  their 
ettbrts." 


Egyptian  Sculptors. 


PART  II.  — Hellenic  States. 


PERIOD   L  —  The  Age  of  Fable. 


CHAPTER   VI. 


EARLIEST    HISTORY    OF    THE    GREEKS 
—  THEIR    RELIGION. 

«-4XCEPTING  the  Jews, 
^^  the  nations  hitherto  de- 

I  ^  scribed  have  given   but 

JkiHiB  few  ideas  to  our  modern 
^  Hfe.  The  influence  of 
Egypt,  Babylonia,  and  Persia 
has  doubtless  reached  us  in- 
directly through  their  dealings 
with  the  Hebrews  and  Greeks; 
but  those  mighty  empires  are 
too  remote  in  time  and  cir- 
cumstances to  have  affected  us 
greatly.  Greece,  on  the  con- 
trary, by  her  art,  literature. 
Bust  of  Homer.  ^ud    philosophy,  lias   exerted  a 

controlling  influence  upon  the  intellectual  life  of  the  world. 

86.    The  Greeks  were  Aryans,  like  the  Medes,  Persians, 
Bactrians,  and  the   Brahmins  of   India,  and  were  probably 
among    the    earliest   emigrants   from   the   original   home   in 
(52) 


THE  GREEK  PENINSULA, 


53 


Asia  (§5).  The  first-comers  were  called  Pelasgi;  their 
successive  abodes  in  Asia  Minor,  Greece,  and  Italy  may 
he  traced  by  remains  of  their  buildings,  which  may  still 
l)e  seen,  composed  of  enormous  masses  of  rough  stone 
joined  without  cement.  Many  other  tribes  followed,  among 
whom  the  HcUe'nes  at  length  gained  the  chief  power  in 
(Ireece,  and  gave  their  name  to  all  the  Aryan  settlers  of 


>>v 


Syfts  1 


Siphiios 


Map  3.  —  Greece. 

that  peninsula  and  its  neighboring  islands.  *' Wherever 
the  Hellenic  tongue  was  spoken,  there  was  Hellas;"  the 
names  of  Greece  and  Greeks  were  of  later  origin. 

87.  If  you  look  upon  Map  3,  you  will  see  that  the 
(ireek  peninsula  is  divided,  by  deep  gulfs,  into  a  northern, 
a  central,  and  a  southern  part.     These  are,  moreover,  in- 


54  THE  ANCIENT  WORLD. 

tersected  by  mountain-chains,  so  that  twenty-four  separate 
states  existed  within  this  Httle  peninsula,  which  is  only 
250  miles  long  and  180  miles  wide  at  its  greatest  extent. 
Northern  Greece  contained  two  countries,  Thessaly  and 
Epirus;  Central  Greece,  eleven,  of  which  Attica  was  the 
most  celebrated,  though  not  the  largest;  and  the  Pelopon- 
nesus, or  Southern  Greece,  had  also  eleven,  among  which 
Lacedaemon,  with  Sparta  for  its  capital,  long  held  the 
supremacy. 

88.  The  Greeks  were  a  bright,  active,  and  enterprising 
people.  Tempted  by  the  bays  and  inlets  which  so  deeply 
indent  their  coasts,  and  by  the  many  islands  which  afford 
easy  stepping-stones  to  Asia,  they  very  early  became  sailors 
and  traders  to  foreign  lands.  Their  cities  in  Asia  Minor, 
Sicily,  and  southern  Italy  surpassed  those  of  the  mother- 
land in  wealth  and  beauty.  Thus  open  on  every  side  to 
foreign  influences,  the  Greeks  could  not  fail  to  profit  by 
the  civilization  of  older  nations.*  They  learned  the  art  of 
alphabetic  writing  from  the  Phoenicians,  and  derived  many 
ideas  concerning  philosophy  and  religion  from  "the  learn- 
ing of  the  Egyptians." 

8g.    Hellenic  history  will  be  treated  in  four  periods : 

I.  The  Age  of  Fable,  ending  with  the  Dorian  Migra- 
tion,  HOG  B.  C. 

II.  Authentic  History,  from  the  Migrations  to  the  Per- 
sian Wars,  500  B.  C. 

III.  From  the  Beginning  of  Persian  Wars  to  the  Suprem- 
acy of  Macedon,  338  B.  C. 

IV.  Empire  of  the  Greeks  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa, 
until  their  conquest  by  the  Romans,  146  B.  C. 

90.  The  Age  of  Fable  is  also  called  the  Heroic  Age. 
The  Heroes  were  supposed  to  have  been  sons  of  the  gods, 
and  to  have  surpassed  all  common  men  in  strength,  beauty, 
and  greatness  of  soul.  Among  the  most  celebrated  were 
Her'cules,  whose  "twelve  labors"  delivered  the  land  from 


SIEGE  OF  TROY.  55 

noxious  pools,  savage  beasts,  and  still  more  dangerous 
men  J  The'seus,*  the  civilizcr  of  Attica,  and  founder  of  the 
Isthmian  (Kimes  (§103);  Mi'nos,  king  of  Crete,  a  great 
lawgiver  and  judge;  and  Ja'son,  a  Thessalian  prince,  who 
sailed  with  fifty  brave  comrades  through  the  Black  Sea  to 
Colchis  in  quest  of  the  Golden  Fleece.  The  stories  of 
these  and  many  other  heroes  may  be  read  in  the  Greek 
Mythology. 

91.  Last  and  greatest  of  the  heroic  deeds,  was  the  ten 
years'  siege  of  Troy,  in  Asia  Minor.  Paris,  son  of  the 
Trojan  king  Priam,  had  carried  away  Helen,  wife  of 
Menela'us,  king  of  Sparta.  All  the  Greek  princes  mustered 
their  ships  and  men  to  punish  the  wicked  deed;  and, 
choosing  Agamem'non,  brother  of  the  injured  Menelaus,  as 
their  leader,  they  sailed  across  the  blue  ^gean,  and  be- 
sieged Troy.  The  closing  scenes  of  the  war  are  narrated 
by  Homer  in  the  Iliad,  one  of  the  greatest  poems  of  the 
whole  world's  literature. 

92.  Achirics,  the  favorite  hero  of  the  Greeks,  quarreled 
with  Agamemnon  and  shut  himself  up  in  his  tent.  Hector, 
the  bravest  of  the  Trojan  princes,  now  gained  the  advan- 
tage and  drove  the  Greeks  to  their  ships.  Pat'roclus  then 
borrowed  the  armor  of  Achilles,  and  at  the  head  of  his 
Myrmidons  drove  back  the  Trojans  and  saved  the  ships, 
but  was  himself  slain  by  Hector.  To  avenge  his  friend, 
Achilles  reappeared  in  battle,  and  killed  the  brave  Hector, 
whose  corpse  he  dragged  behind  his  chariot  about  the 
walls  of  the  city.  Achilles  himself  perished  in  the  fight, 
but  the  Greeks  were  victorious.  Troy  fell,  and  for  ages 
lay  so  buried  in  ruins  that  some  have  even  doubted 
whether  it  ever  existed.  Within  a  few  years,  however,  the 
efforts  of  Dr.  Schliemann  have  brought  to  light  the  palace 
of  Priam,  and  many  of  its  ornaments  in  gold,  silver,  and 
bronze,  together  with  a  gate  and  temple  which  were  de- 
scribed by  Homer. 


56  7^11  E   ANCIE^fT  WORLD. 

93.  Whether  we  believe  the  poet's  story  or  not,  his 
descriptions  afford  true  pictures  of  early  Greek  customs 
in  war,  government,  and  home  life.  Each  little  state 
(§87)  had  its  king,  who  was  supposed  to  be  descended 
from  Zeus  (§95),  and  who  was  at  once  the  father,  the 
judge,  the  general,  and  the  priest  of  his  people.  A  council 
of  nobles,  also  sons  of  the  gods,  aided  him  with  their 
wisdom  and  their  arms.  They  had  broad  lands,  many 
slaves,  and  treasures  of  gold  and  silver;  but  king  and 
nobles  lived  simply  and  industriously,  plowing  and  reap- 
ing their  fields,  building  and  rowing  their  boats,  and  even 
sometimes  cooking  their  own  dinners. 

94.  Queens  and  noble  ladies  wove  the  wool  and  flax 
of  their  husbands'  estates  into  garments  for  themselves  and 
their  families,  while  princesses  brought  water  from  the 
well,  or  helped  their  slaves  to  wash  garments  in  the  rivers. 
These  early  Greeks  loved  poetry,  music,  and  all  the  arts; 
and  in  every  house  a  cordial  welcome  awaited  the  minstrel 
who  sang  the  brave  deeds  of  heroes,  or  the  visits  of  the 
gods  to  men.  In  this  way  Homer's  poems  passed  from 
mouth  to  mouth  centuries  before  they  were  committed  to 
writing. 

95.  Greek  Religion  was  for  the  most  part  a  refined 
form  of  Nature-worship.  All  Hellenes  believed  in  Zeus,^ 
the  Thunderer,  king  of  gods  and  men;  in  PoseHdon,  god  of 
the  sea;  Apotlo,  the  sun-god;  Ares,  god  of  war;  Hcphces'tus, 
of  fire  and  the  useful  arts;  and  in  Her'mes,  the  promoter  of 
commerce  and  wealth.  The  six  chief  goddesses  were  Hera, 
wife  of  Zeus;  Athe'na,  his  favorite  daughter;  Ar'temis,  the 
moon-goddess;  Aphrodi'fe,  the  impersonation  of  beauty  and 
love ;  Hes'tia^  the  guardian  of  domestic  life ;  and  Deme'ter, 
the  bountiful  mother  of  harvests.  These  twelve  constituted 
the  supreme  council  of  the  gods,  on  the  heights  of  Mt. 
Olympus;  but  every  field,  river,  and  forest  was  supposed 
to  be  inhabited  by  its  separate  divinity. 


Gl^KEA'  RELIGION.  57 

96.  **  Mysteries,"  in  honor  of  Demeter,  were  celebrated 
every  year  at  Eleusis,  in  Attica;  and  so  reverently  were 
they  regarded,  that  it  was  a  crime  even  to  mention  them 
in  the  presence  of  foreigners  or  others  who  were  not 
admitted  to  a  share  in  them.  Of  course  we  have  no  means 
o{  knowing  what  rites  or  doctrines  were  so  secretly  com- 
memorated; but  ancient  writers  seem  to  intimate  that  they 
were  connected  with  the  hope  of  a  future  life.  They  gave 
a  feeling  of  comfort  and  security  to  their  participants;  and, 
in  case  of  sudden  peril,  strangers  often  asked  each  other, 
"Have  you  been  initiated?" 

97.  Much  less  respectable  were  the  orgies  or  drunken 
rites  held  in  honor  of  Diony'sus,  god  of  the  vine.  Troops 
of  women,  called  Bacchantes,  spent  whole  nights  upon  the 
mountains,  shouting,  leaping,  and  clashing  noisy  instru- 
ments, even  tearing  human  victims  to  pieces  and  devouring 
their  flesh.  They  believed  that  this  frenzy  arose  from  the 
presence  of  the  god,  and  that  those  who  resisted  it  would 
be  punished  with  madness. 

98.  In  spite  of  these  strange  occasional  excesses,  the 
Greeks  believed  that  the  Ruler  of  the  world  demanded 
truth,  purity,  and  justice  from  men.  In  the  earliest  times, 
if  deadly  sins  were  committed,  there  was  no  hope;  the 
guilty  person  was  haunted  by  avenging  goddesses,  who 
never  slept,  but  stood  or  walked  by  his  side  with  flaming 
eyes  until  his  crime  was  punished.  Afterward  the  idea  of 
atonement  for  sin  was  derived  from  Asia  —  perhaps  indi- 
rectly from  the  Hebrews.  In  case  of  famine,  pestilence, 
or  defeat  in  war,  whole  cities  or  states  endeavored  to 
cleanse  themselves  by  prayers  and  sacrifices,  from  some 
known  or  hidden  crime. 

99.  From  very  early  times  the  gods  were  su])posed  to 
make  known  their  will  to  men  by  dreams,  oracles,  divina- 
tions, and  the  motions  of  the  stars.  The  most  celebrated 
oracle  was  that  of  Apollo  at  Delphi.     His  priestess  seated 


5^  THE  ANCIENT  WORLD. 

herself  at  the  mouth  of  a  cave,  whence  issued  an  intoxi- 
cating vapor,  and,  when  sufficiently  giddy  or  inspired, 
uttered  a  response  so  obscure  that  the  inquirer  needed 
more  wit  to  discover  what  it  meant  than  to  decide  upon 
the  best  course  of  conduct  for  himself.  It  is  said  that 
Croesus,  king  of  Lydia,  asked  counsel  at  Delphi,  whether 
he  should  make  war  against  Cyrus  (§29),  The  reply  was, 
*'If  thou  make  war  against  the  Persians,  thou  shalt  ruin 
a  great  empire."  When  Croesus  had  lost  his  crown,  he 
was  not  much  comforted  by  the  priestess'  explanation,  that 
his  own  empire  had  been  great,  and  was  now  ruined. 

100.  The  Heroic  Age  ended  with  important  movements 
among  the  four  Hellenic  tribes.*  The  barbarous  Illyrians 
crossed  the  northern  border,  and  crowded  the  Hellenes 
into  closer  quarters.  The  Dorians  of  central  Greece  then 
passed  over  to  the  Peloponnesus,  of  which  they  made 
themselves  masters;  and  their  leaders  became  kings  re- 
spectively of  Argos,  Messenia,  and  Lacedaemon.  Many 
lonians,  thus  crowded  out  of  southern  Greece,  founded 
twelve  new  cities  on  the  islands  and  eastern  coasts  of  the 
^gean.  These  soon  became  rich  and  flourishing,  and 
were  early  noted  for  the  brilliant  genius  of  their  people. 
The  poets  Homer  and  Anac'reon  were  lonians  of  Asia. 

loi.  The  Dorians,  not  content  with  their  conquered 
peninsula,  seized  the  islands  of  Cos  and  Rhodes,  and  a 
small  portion  of  the  Asiatic  mainland,  where  they  built 
Cnidus  and  Halicarnassus.  The  ^olians  also  built  many 
new  cities,  both  in  Asia  and  in  Italy. 

Great  changes  occurred  in  the  Grecian  governments  dur- 
ing the  time  of  the  Migrations.  Almost  all  the  monarchies 
were  replaced  by  republics.  Cities  acquired  much  greater 
importance;  in  fact,  each  state  now  consisted  of  a  city, 
with  its  little  tract  of  subject  territory.  Though  completely 
independent,  and   often   envious   and   hostile   toward   each 


The  Dorians,  lonians,  Achceans,  and  ^olian?. 


THE  OLYMPIC  GAMES.  59 

iher,  the  Greeks  of  all  these  states,  in  Europe  and  Asia, 
prided  themselves  upon  their  common  language,  religion, 
md  ancestry,  which  distinguished  them  from  the  rest  of 
mankind,  whom  they  called  barbarians  or  babblers. 

102.  This  national  feeling  was  kept  alive  by  the  great 
games  and  festivals,  which,  at  least  once  in  every  year, 
drew  together  throngs  of  Greeks  from  the  remotest  corners 
of  Hellas.  Here  were  chanted  the  war-ballads  of  Homer, 
which  described  all  the  Greeks  as  united  against  a  com- 
mon foe.  Here,  too,  were  friendly  contests  in  running, 
leaping,  wrestling,  and  racing  with  horses  and  chariots. 
Every  Greek,  however  poor  or  unknown,  was  admitted  to 
the  competition;  but  all  barbarians,  though  of  royal  birth, 
were  excluded.  The  victor  was  crowned  with  wild  olive, 
laurel,  or  pine;  he  was  welcomed  home  with  choral  pro- 
cessions, and  with  all  the  honors  that  his  native  city 
could   bestow. 

103.  Oldest  and  most  famous  of  all  were  the  Olympic 
Games — said  to  have  been  founded  by  Hercules  —  which 
were  celebrated  once  in  four  years,  in  E'lis,  the  Holy  Land 
of  the  Hellenes.  While  these  games  lasted,  all  wars  ceased ; 
and  so  great  was  their  importance,  that  the  Greeks  of 
later  years  used  the  period  of  their  recurrence  as  a 
measure  of  time.  The  First  Olympiad  wd.^  B.  C.  776-772. 
Next  in  rank  were  the  Pythian  Games,  in  honor  of  Apollo, 
held  in  Phocis,  the  third  year  of  every  Olympiad.  They 
included  competitions  in  music  and  poetry,  as  well  as  ath- 
letic contests.  The  praises  of  Zeus  were  again  celebrated 
by  the  Nemean  Games,  every  two  years,  near  Cleonse  in 
Argolis;  and  those  of  Poseidon,  the  sea  god,  in  the  alter- 
nate years,  by  the  Isthmian  Games,  near  his  temple  on 
the  Isthmus  of  Corinth. 

104.  Another  bond  of  union  was  formed  by  leagues  of 
kindred  tribes,  for  worship  and  for  mutual  counsel  and 
defense.      The  sacred  Isle  of  Delos  was  the  religious  me- 


6o  THE  ANCIENT  WORLD. 

tropolis  of  the  Cyclades,  whither  all  the  Ionian  cities  sent 
yearly  embassies  to  offer  sacrifices  to  Apollo.  The  Ionian 
and  Dorian  cities,  in  Asia  Minor,  had  each  a  federal 
union,  whose  meetings  were  celebrated  by  games  and 
religious  festivals;  and  on  the  Greek  peninsula  a  grand 
" Amphictyonic  Council"  of  twelve  tribes  met  twice  every 
year — in  the  spring,  at  Delphi,  and  in  the  fall,  at  Anthela, 
near  Thermopylae.  The  faith  of  the  Council  was  pledged 
to  the  protection  of  every  member  by  the  following  oath : 
"They  would  destroy  no  city  of  the  Amphictyons,  nor  cut 
off  their  streams  in  war  or  peace;  and  if  any  should  do  so, 
they  would  march  against  him  and  destroy  his  cities;  and 
should  any  pillage  the  property  of  the  god  (Apollo),  or 
plan  any  thing  against  his  temple,  at  Delphi  (§99),  they 
would  take  vengeance  upon  him  with  hand  and  foot  and 
voice,  and  all  their  might." 

Name  the  natural  boundaries  of  Greece.  Point  out,  on  Maps  2 
and  3,  the  Ambracian,  Corinthian,  and  Saronic  gulfs.  The  states  of 
northern  Greece.  Of  central  Greece.  Of  the  Peloponnesus.  The 
islands  of  Euboea,  Delos,  Samos,  Lesbos,  Lemnos,  Rhodes,  Crete. 
Miletus,  and  other  Ionian  cities  in  Asia  Minor.  Mitylene,  and  other 
yEolian  cities.     Cnidus,  and  other  Dorian  cities.     Troy. 

For  illustration,  read  Kingsley's  "Heroes;"  Hawthorne's  "Wonder 
Book"  and  "Tanglewood  Tales;"  Homer's  Iliad,  in  Bryant's  or  Lord 
Derby's  translation  ;  and  Bryant's  translation  of  the  Odyssey. 

For  information,  see  Felton's  Smith's  Greece,  Book  I,  and  the  early 
volumes  of  Grote's  History  of  Greece. 

NOTES. 

1.  The  Greeks  believed  that  their  remote  ancestors  learned  the  arts 
of  civilized  life  from  Oriental  and  Egyptian  strangers.  Athens  was  said 
to  have  been  founded  by  Cecrops,  a  native  of  Sais  in  Egypt,  who  insti- 
tuted its  forms  of  worship  and  domestic  life.  Its  citadel  was  called  the 
Cecrojna  down  to  the  latest  times.  Danaus  was  fabled  to  have  come 
from  the  J^ile-country  with  his  fifty  daughters,  to  escape  the  persecu- 
tion of  their  fifty  suitors,  who  were  all  sons  of  his  brother  ^gyptus.  He 
became  king  of  Argos,  and,  as  this  kingdom  enjoyed  a  certain  leader- 
ship in  early  times,  Homer  often  calls  all  the  Greeks  Danai.  Pelops 
was  believed  to  have  come  from  Asia  Minor  and  founded  the  kingdom 
of  Mycense.    From  him  the  Peloponnesus  derived  its  name. 


AO/A.V.  6 1 


A  ptrntn  of  truth  may  bo  found  In  tho  story  of  Ctulmus  the  PhoBiil- 
clan,  who  wiu*  roputcnl  to  hiivo  fouiulod  Th"bcs,  In  IVrothi,  and  to  have 
tnu^ht  tlu'  people  tlie  arts  of  mining  and  viMe-ctdlure,  and  the  use  <»f 
the  alpha»H»t.  It  Is  eertaln  that  l)oth  tlie  nanu«sand  tlu*  forms  of  <  ficck 
letters  were  tierived  fi-otn  the  IMuenlcians;  and,  as  these  peoph>  planted 
colonies  at  a  very  »«arly  time  In  the  Isljuids  of  the  (Jreelan  Archii>claKo, 
they  may  very  likely  have  penetrate<l  the  jualn  land.  The  fortress  of 
Thebes  bor«>  the  nan'ie  ratintra  to  a  late  perhxi. 

ihc  stories  of  Knyptian  eolonles  are  thus  aeeounted  for  by  Dr.  Smith: 
•  riie  spetiilalive  <ii«'eks  [see  note,  p.  fiO]  who  vislto<l  Kxypt  In  the 
sixlh  and  llftii  eenturles  before  the  Cliristlan  era,  were  profoundly  Im- 
prossi>«t  with  the  monuments  of  the  old  Kgyntlan  monarchy,  whieh, 
even  in  tlu\t  early  age  of  the  world,  Indleatea  a  gray  and  hoary  an- 
tiquity. The  Ktryptian  priests  were  not  slow  to  avail  themselves  of  the 
impres.«»ion  made  upon  their  visitors,  and  told  the  latter  many  a  won- 
drous tale  to  i)rove  that  the  civilization,  the  art,s  and  even  the  rellRlon 
of  the  (ireeks,  all  c^vme  from  the  land  of  the  Nile.  These  tales  found 
easy  believers;  they  were  curried  back  to  Greece,  and  repeated  with  va- 
rious mtMllfleatlons  and  embellishments;  and  thus,  no  doubt,  arose  the 
greater  number  of  the  traditions  respectiuR  Ks.vptian  colonies  in  Greece. 

"Tlie  only  fact  which  lends  any  countenance  to  the  existence  of  an 
Bigvptian  colony  In  Greece,  Is  the  discovery  of  the  remains  of  two  i)yra- 
ml'ds  at  no  jjrreat  dlstnnce  from  Argos;  but  this  form  of  buildinu  Is  not 
conflneil  to  Egypt.  Pyramids  are  found  in  India,  IJabylonIa,  and  Mex- 
ico, and  may,  therefore,  have  been  erected  by  the  early  inhabitants  of 
Greece,  independently  of  any  connection  with  Egypt.''— Ft7/o/i',s  ^Smifh'.s 
*'  Oreece." 

2.  Among  the  many  memorable  achievements  of  Theseus,  son  of 
King  .Egeus,  "the  most  famous  was  his  deliverance  of  Athens  from 
the  frightful  tribute  imposed  upon  it  by  Minos  for  the  murder  of  his 
son.  This  consisted  of  seven  youths  and  seven  maidens  whom  the 
Athenians  were  compelled  to  send  every  nine  years  to  Crete,  there  to 
be  devoured  by  the  Minotaur,  a  monster  with  a  human  body  and  a 
bull's  head,  which  Minos  kept  concealed  in  an  Inextricable  labyrinth. 
The  third  ship  was  already  on  the  point  of  sailing  with  its  cargo  of  in- 
nocent victims,  when  Theseus  oflfered  to  go  with  them,  hoping  to  put 
an  end  forever  to  the  horrible  tribute.  Arituine,  the  daughter  of  Minos, 
became  enamored  of  the  hero,  and,  having  supplied  him  with  a  clew  to 
trace  the  windings  of  the  labyrinth,  Theseus  succeeded  in  killing  the 
monster,  and  in  tracking  his  way  out  of  the  mazv  lair.  Ashe  returned 
towards  Athens,  the  pilot  forgot  to  hoist  the  white  sail  agreed  upon  as 
the  signal  of  success;  whereupon  .Egeus,  thinking  that  his  son  had  per- 
ished, threw  himself  into  the  sea,  which  afterwards  bore  his  name. 

Theseus,  having  now  ascended  the  throne,  proceeded  to  lay  the  foun- 
dations of  the  future  greatness  of  Athens.  He  united  into  one  political 
body  the  twelve  independent  states  into  which  Cecrops  had  divided 
Attica,  and  made  Athens  the  capital  of  the  new  kingdom.  In  order  to 
accoramotiiite  the  increivsed  population  of  the  city,  he  covered  with 
buildings  the  ground  lying  to  the  south  of  the  Cecropian  citadel;  and, 
in  commemoration  of  the  union,  he  instituted  the  festivals  of  the  Pan- 
athenffia  and  Synoikia,  in  honor  of  Athena,  the  patron  goddess  of  the 
city.  He  then  divided  the  citizens  into  three  classes;  namely,  EupatrUice, 
or  nobles j  Geomori,  or  husbandmen;  and  Demiurgi,  or  artisans.  He  is 
further  said  to  have  established  a  constitutional  government,  retaining 
in  his  own  hands  only  certain  definite  powers  and  privileges,  so  that 
he  was  regarded  in  a  later  age  as  the  founder  of  civil  equality  at  Allxiis. 
He  also  extended  tho  Attic  territory  to  the  confines  of  Peloponnesus. 
and  established  the  games  in  honor  of  Poseidon,  which  were  celebrated 
on  the  Isthmus."— jFV«on'.v  Smith's  "  Grerce,'^  p.  18. 

Theseus  was  reverenced  for  ages  as  the  great  local  hero.  The  temple 
erected  In  his  honor  is  to  this  day  the  best  preserved  of  all  the  beautiful 
works  of  Athenian  architecture.  In  times  of  national  danger,  as  at  the 
battle  of  Marathon  (iiU-'>)  the  gigantic  shade  of  Theseus  was  believed  to 
be  seen  fighting  in  the  midst  of  the  Athenian  ranks. 

3.  It  has  been  common  to  call  the  Greek  gods  and  gwldesses  by  the 
names  of  Roman  divinities  who  most  nearly  resembled  them  in  charac- 
ter; but  this  is  often  misleading.    The  Romans  tried  to  find,  In  the  del- 


62  THE  ANCIENT    WORLD. 


ties  of  other  nations,  something  in  common  with  their  own;  and,  tliere 
is  no  doubt  that  many  of  the  Greelc  and  Roman  conceptions  of  divinity 
were  common  to  them  with  otlier  branches  of  the  Aryan  family. 

The  following  table  gives  the  Greek  and  Roman  names  of  some  of 
the  principal  deities  that  have  been  thus  identified : 

Greek.  Roman. 

Zeus  Jupiter 

Poseidon  Neptune 

Hades  Pluto 

Ares  Mars 

Hephaestus  Vulcan 

Hermes  Mercury. 
Apollo  bore  the  same  name  for  both;  Helios  is  an  old  Greek  name  for 
the  sun-god,  but  is  not  identical  with  Apollo. 

Goddesses. 

Hera  Juno 

Athena  Minerva 

Aphrodite  Venus 

Artemis  Diana 

Hestia  Vesta 

Demeter  Ceres 

Persephone  Proserpina. 

4.  "The  religion  of  the  sacred  fire  dates  from  the  dim  and  distant 
epoch  when  there  were  as  yet  no  Greeks,  no  Italians,  no  Hindus,  when 
tnere  were  only  Aryans.  When  the  tribes  separated,  they  carried  this 
worship  with  them— some  to  the  banks  of  the  Ganges,  others  to  the 
shores  of  the  Mediterranean.  Later,  when  these  tribes  had  no  inter- 
course with  each  other,  some  adored  Brama,  others  Zeus,  and  still  others 
Janus;  but  all  preserved,  as  an  ancient  legacy,  the  first  religion  which 
they  had  known  and  practiced  in  the  common  cradle  of  their  race. 

"This  fire  was  something  divine;  they  adored  it  and  oflTered  it  a  real 
worship.  They  made  oflerings  to  it  of  whatever  they  believed  to  be 
agreeable  to  a  god— flowers,  fruits,  incense,  wine,  and  victims.  They 
believed  it  to  have  power,  and  asked  for  its  protection.  They  addressed 
fervent  prayers  to  it,  to  obtain  those  eternal  objects  of  human  desire- 
health,  wealth,  and  happiness. 

"At  certain  moments  of  the  day  they  placed  upon  the  fire  dry  herbs 
and  wood;  then  the  god  manifested  himself  in  a  bright  flame. 

"Before  eating,  they  placed  upon  the  altar  the  first  fruits  of  the  food; 
before  drinking,  they  poured  out  a  libation  of  wine.  This  was  the  god's 
portion.  No  one  doubted  that  he  was  present;  that  he  ate  and  drank; 
for  did  they  not  see  the  flame  increase  as  if  it  had  been  nourished  by 
the  provisions  oflered?" — Fustel  de  Coulanges,  '■'■The  Ancient  Cityy^ 

Cities,  like  families,  had  their  sacred  hearth-fires,  before  which  a  sa- 
cred banquet  was  held  every  day.  "  In  Athens,  the  men  who  took  part 
in  this  common  meal  were  selected  by  lot.  Every  guest  had  a  crown 
upon  his  head ;  it  was  a  custom  of  the  ancients  to  wear  a  crown  of 
leaves  or  fiowers  when  one  performed  a  solemn  religious  act.  For  the 
same  reason,  the  banqueters  were  clothed  in  robes  of  white— white  was 
the  sacred  color,  that  which  pleased  the  gods.  The  meal  invariably 
commenced  with  a  prayer  and  libations,  and  hymns  were  sung." 

When  a  new  city  was  to  be  founded,  fire  was  carried  from  the  sacred 
hearth— the  prytaneum  of  the  mother-city— and  placed  upon  that  of  the 
daughter,  which  had  henceforth  the  same  religion.  Exile  was  consid- 
ered as  a  capital  punishment,  and  from  the  complaints  of  its  victims 
we  should  judge  it  to  be  worse  than  death.  For  the  exile  had  no  relig- 
ion; his  own  gods  could  be  approached  only  at  their  own  altars,  and 
he  had  no  right  to  enter  the  temple  of  an  alien  divinity. 


PERIOD  II.— From  the  Mh^rafions  to  the  Persian  Wars, 


CHAPTER  VII. 


SPARTA    AND    ATHENS. 


HF2    history  of  the   Greeks   is 
mainly  involved    in    that    of 
the  two  leading  states,  Sparta 
and  Athens.     These  not  only 
represented  the  two  more  im- 
portant   tribes,    the    Dorians   and 
lonians,    but    the    two    opposing 
principles    which    divided    every 
state  in  Greece,  except,  perhaps, 
Sparta  herself:    namely,  the  prin- 
ciples of  oligarchy  and   democracy^ 
the    former   aiming   to    place    the 
government  in  the  hands  of  a  few 
powerful  men,  the  latter,  to  entrust 
it  to  the  people  themselves.    The 
Pallas  Athena.  Dorians  wcfc  remarkable  for  their 

severe  and  simple  manners;  the  lonians,  for  the  brilliancy 
and  harmonious  balance  of  their  minds,  and  their  genius 
for  all  the  arts  which  beautify  life. 

io6.  The  laws  of  Si)arta  were  said  to  be  the  work  of 
Lycurgus,^  who  lived  about  850  B.  C. ;  but,  probably,  he 
only  shaped  the  customs  already  prevailing  into  more 
exact  form.    When  the  Dorians  conquered  the  Peloponnesus 

(63) 


64  THE   ANCIENT  WORLD. 

(§  loo),  most  of  the  former  occupants  of  the  country  be- 
came tenants  and  slaves  of  their  conquerors.  The  Spartans 
were  but  few  in  comparison  with  these  subject  Achaeans, 
and  Lycur'gus  resolved  to  make  up,  by  military  drill  and 
efficiency,  what  they  lacked  in  numbers.  To  this  end, 
every  Spartan  was  a  soldier,  and  was  taught  that  his  life 
belonged  to  the  state. 

107.  Every  newly-born  babe  was  brought  before  a 
committee  of  old  men,  who  decided  upon  his  right  to 
live.  If  puny  or  sickly,  he  was  cast  into  a  ravine  to 
perish;  but  if  he  seemed  likely  to  be  strong,  he  was 
accepted  as  a  son  of  Sparta,  and  was  endowed  with  one 
nine-thousandth  part  of  the  public  lands.  At  seven  years 
of  age  he  was  taken  from  his  mother,  and,  until  he  was 
sixty,  lived  the  life  of  a  soldier.  He  ate  black  broth  at 
the  public  tables;  he  was  toughened  by  exposure  to  heat, 
cold,  hunger,  thirst,  fatigue,  and  scourging,  and  thought 
himself  disgraced  if  a  word  or  sound  of  complaint  escaped 
him.  The  girls  were  almost  as  severely  trained  as  their 
brothers^  and  learned  to  prefer  the  glory  of  Sparta  above 
all  home  affections.  One  mother  shouted  for  joy  when 
told  that  her  eight  sons  had  perished  on  one  battle-field. 

108.  Sparta  had  always  two  kings,  supposed  to  be 
descended  from  twin  grandsons  of  Hercules;  but  their 
power  was  only  that  of  priests  and  generals,  subject  to  the 
Senate,  and,  later,  to  the  committee  of  five  "Ephors,"  who 
really  governed  the  state.  The  population  of  Lacedaemon 
was  divided  into  three  classes :  (i)  the  Spartans  proper, 
descended  from  the  Dorian  conquerors,  who  kept  to  them- 
selves all  honors  and  power  in  the  government,  and  lived 
in  the  city  of  Sparta  as  in  a  camp,  always  ready  for  mili- 
tary duty.  Commerce  and  all  useful  arts  were  left  to  (2) 
the  subject  Achceans,  who  inhabited  the  country  towns.  The 
fields  were  cultivated  by  (3)  Helots, '^d,  race  of  serfs  attached 
to   the   soil,  who  were   kept   in  a  most   cruel   slavery.     To 


S/\IA"/:i    .tXD  A'n/KXS.  65 

shut  out  foreign  luxuries,  Lycurgus  ordered  Spartan  money 
to  be  made  of  rusted  iron,  so  that  no  other  nation  would 
receive  it. 

109.  I'or  three  hundred  years  from  the  time  of  Lycur- 
ij;us,  Sparta  was  engaged  in  contests  with  her  neighbors  in 
the  Peloponnesus  —  the  Messenians,  Arcadians,  and  Argives 
—  which  gave  her  the  control  of  the  peninsula.  So  great 
was  her  power,  that  she  would,  perhaps,  have  become 
mistress  of  all  Greece,  if  the  Persian  Empire,'  now  domi- 
nant in  Asia,  had  not  tried  to  extend  itself  into  Europe 
King  Darius  turned  his  revengeful  eyes  upon  the  Athe- 
nians (§52),  and  his  efforts  to  subdue  them — or,  rather, 
their  brave  resistance  —  made  them,  after  the  wars,  the 
leading  power  in  Greece. 

no.  Athens  was  not  only  the  rival,  but  the  perfect 
contrast  of  Sparta.  More  than  any  other  people  that  ever 
lived,  the  Athenians  loved  music,  poetry,  eloquence,  and 
all  the  arts  of  expression;  while  the  Spartans  prided  them- 
selves upon  their  blunt,  laconic  speech,  and  thought  it  a 
crime  to  use  three  words  where  two  would  suffice. 

111.  The  last  king  of  Athens  fell  in  battle  with  the 
Dorians  (§100),  and  for  several  centuries  the  nobles 
governed  the  state.  Their  power  was  often  oppressive  — 
especially  when,  in  times  of  calamity,  the  poor  were  com- 
pelled to  borrow  money  from  them  at  a  ruinous  rate  of 
interest,  and  became  slaves  from  inability  to  pay  their 
debts.  At  length,  the  people  made  their  voice  heard  in  a 
demand  for  written  laws.  To  rebuke  their  presumption, 
the  nobles  appointed  Dra'co,  the  sternest  of  their  number, 
to  prepare  a  code.  Draco's  laws  were  said  to  have  been 
written  with  blood :  the  slightest  crimes  were  punished 
with  death,  and  the  lives  of  all  the  people  were  placed  at 
the  mere/  of  the  nobles. 

112.  These  cruel  enactments  drove  the  people  to  revolt, 
and  the  nobles,  now  convinced  of  their  error,  chose  So'lon,' 

Hist. -5. 


66  THE  ANCIENT  WORLD. 

the  wisest  of  their  class,  to  prepare  a  more  just  and  liberal 

constitution.      He    abolished    slavery   for    debt, 

'  ^^^'        gave   to   every  freeman   the   right   to  vote,  and 

laid  the  burdens  of  the  state  on  those  who  were  best  able 

to  bear  them. 

113.  Still  the  rights  of  the  people  were  not  fully  secured. 
Pisis'tratus,  a  kinsman  of  Solon,   the  most  popular  and  ac- 
complished man  of  his  time,  but  also  the  most 
ambitious,  managed  to  usurp  the  supreme  power. 

For  this  reason  he  was  called  a  tyrant;^  but,  though  he 
gained  his  power  by  force,  we  can  not  deny  that  he  used 
it  wisely  and  well.  He  stricdy  enforced  Solon's  laws,  and 
did  much  for  the  improvement  of  the  people.  He  first 
collected  the  war-ballads  of  Homer  into  the  great  epic 
poem  called  the  Iliad;  and  his  library,  the  first  in  Greece, 
was  freely  open  to  all  who  wished  to  consult  it.  Though 
he  was  twice  expelled  from  Athens,  and  once  remained  in 
exile  eighteen  years,  Pisistratus  at  length  established  his 
power;  and  his  sons,  Hip'pias  and  Hippar'chus,  succeeded 
him  peaceably  at  his  death,  527  B.  C. 

114.  But  the  Athenians  had  now  learned  to  be  more 
careful  of  their  liberties.  Hipparchus  was  murdered  by  a 
citizen  whom  he  had  offended,  and  his  brother,  Hippias, 
was  sent  into  exile.  To  prevent  any  citizen's  becoming  too 
powerful  in  future,  the  singular  custom  of  ostracism'^  was 
introduced.  The  best  of  men  could  be  exiled  for  ten  years, 
without  accusation,  trial,  or  defense,  simply  by  a  vote 
of  one  fourth  of  the  Athenian  freemen.^  To  be  ostracised 
was  no  disgrace,   for  it  implied  no  crime,   but  was  a   tes- 


*So  called  from  oorgamv,  the  Greek  name  for  the  tile,  or  oyster- 
shell,  on  which  the  name  of  the  person  was  written.  If  the  Senate 
decided  that  public  safety  demanded  the  ostracism,  the  citizens 
assembled,  on  an  appointed  day,  in  the  market-place,  and  cast 
these  ballots  in  a  heap.  If  one  man's  name  was  found  on  6,000 
tiles,  he  left  the  city  within  ten  days. 


ATI/EN f AN  OSTRACISAf.  67 

timony  to  the  talents  and  sometimes  even  to  the  virtues  of 
its  victim.  This  precautionary  measure  was  the  work  of 
Clis'thenes,  who,  next  to  Solon,  may  be  considered  as  the 
founder  of  Athenian  liberty.  He  "took  the  people  into 
partnership,"  and  extended  the  rights  of  citizens  to  all 
free  inhabitants  of  Attica.  '1  nese  he  enrolled  in  ten  tribes, 
each  having  an  equal  share  in  the  control  of  civil  and 
military  matters.  From  this  time  Athens  always  had  a 
"government  by  the  people,"  excepting  at  two  calamitous 
periods,  when  the  Spartan  faction,  which  existed  in  almost 
every  city,  was  able  to  revolutionize  its  affairs. 

About  ninety  years  after  the  adoption  of  Clisthenes'  con- 
stitution, it  happened  that  two  great  men  called  for  the 
vote  of  the  Senate,  under  which  each  hoped  that  the  other 
would  be  ostracised.  The  Senate  pronounced  that  some 
one  must  be  exiled;  but,  before  the  day  appointed  for  the 
popular  vote,  the  rivals  made  up  the  quarrel,  and  agreed 
to  *'fire  off  the  safety-gun  of  the  republic"  against  an 
insignificant  man,  whose  presence  or  absence  could  make 
no  difference  to  his  fellow-citizens.  But  the  ostracism, 
thus  degraded,  was  never  called  for  again.  *'It  was  not 
against  such  as  he,"  said  a  Greek  writer,  "that  the  shell 
was  intended  to  be  used." 

Name  the  boundaries  of  Lacedaemon.  Of  Attica.  Of  Argolis, 
Arcadia,  Messenia. 

Grote's  History  of  Greece  is  the  best  authority  for  this  period. 
Read,  also,  in  Rawlinson's  Herodotus,  the  two  Essays  following 
Book  V. 

NOTES. 

1.  So  much  doubt  has  been  thrown  upon  the  history  of  Lycurgus, 
that  some  writers  have  denied  that  he  ever  lived  at  all.  VV'e  have 
reason,  however,  to  believe  that  he  was  the  brother  of  a  Spartan  king, 
who  died  early,  and  whose  infant  son  he  afterwards  cared  for  as  guard- 
ian and  regent.  Dorian  customs  had  fallen  into  some  confusion  in 
Sparta,  and  Lycurgus,  during  liis  regency,  restored  and  confirmed  them, 
adding  such  special  provisions  as  were  required  by  the  circumstances 
of  the  state.  His  discipline  and  laws  are  well  known,  whatever  we  may 
think  of  their  author;  and  they  raised  Sparta  "in  a  little  while  to  a 
proud  and  wonderful  eminence." 

Having  finished  his  work,  liycurgus  made  kings,  senators,  and  peo- 
ple swear  that  they  would  make  no  change  in  his  laws  until  his  return. 


6S  THE  ANCIENT   WORLD. 


He  then  left  Sparta  forever.  He  offered  sacrifices  to  Apollo  at  Delphi 
a  99),  and  received  an  assurance  that  Sparta  should  be  the  most  glori- 
ous city  in  the  world  so  long  as  she  obeyed  his  laws.  "  Where  and  how 
he  died  nobody  could  tell.  He  vanished  from  the  earth  like  a  god, 
leaving  no  traces  behind  but  his  spirit;  and  he  was  honored  as  a  god 
at  Sparta,  with  a  temple  and  yearly  sacrifices  down  to  the  latest  times." 

2.  The  Helots  were  never  allowed  to  forget  that  they  were  slaves. 
They  were  clothed  in  the  skins  of  sheep  and  dogs,  and  were  cruelly 
scourged  for  no  fault  of  theirs.  Sometimes  they  were  forced  to  become 
intoxicated,  that  Spartan  boys  miglu  be  taught  to  despise  drunkenness. 
Worse  than  all,  from  time  to  time,  bands  of  young  Spartans,  armed 
with  daggers,  were  ordered  to  range  over  the  country,  murdering  the 
strongest  and  best  of  the  Helots.  This  was  partly  to  improve  their  own 
military  discipline,  but  also  to  keep  down  the  rustic  population,  who 
were  constantly  increasing  in  numbers,  while  the  Spartans  were  di- 
minishing. In  war,  every  heavy-armed  Spartan  was  attended  by  a 
certain  number  of  light-armed  Helots,  sometimes  as  many  as  seven. 
If  a  Helot  rendered  very  distinguished  service,  he  was  sometimes  re- 
warded by  freedom;  but  this  was  rare.  On  one  occasion,  when  Sparta, 
in  a  great  emergency,  had  been  well  served  by  these  subject  people,  a 
proclamation  was  issued  that  the  bravest  and  best  might  come  and  claim 
their  freedom ;— two  thousand  presented  themselves  and  were  treacher- 
ously put  to  death. 

It  is  clear  that  Spartan  cruelty  arose  in  this  case  from  fear;  but  the 
danger  was  the  result  of  a  false  and  wicked  system,  whi(?h  must  have 
destroyed  all  sentiments  of  justice  and  generosity  in  the  master,  as  well 
as  of  manliness  in  the  serf. 

3.  Though  Solon  was  of  a  great  Athenian  family,  being  descended 
from  King  Codrus,  he  was  poor;  and,  to  mend  the  fortune  which  his 
father's  extravagance  had  impaired,  he  betook  himself  to  foreign  trade. 
He  was  not,  however,  ambitious  to  become  rich,  but  desired  rather  to 
improve  his  mind  by  the  widest  experience  and  observation.  While  he 
was  exchanging  his  Attic  oil  and  honey  for  Egyptian  millet  at  Naucra- 
tis,  he  was  studying  the  life  of  the  people  under  the  rule  of  the  Pha- 
raohs, and  unconsciously  fitting  himself  to  be  of  service  to  his  fellow- 
citizens.  Attica  was  suffering  then,  as  many  a  state  has  since,  from  a 
violent  strife  of  parties.  The  Plain,  the  8hore,  and  the  Mountain,  were 
party  names  for  the  proud  and  wealthv  nobles,  the  merchants,  and  the 
peojianU.  The  latter  were  often  verj^  poor,  and,  under  the  hard  laws  of  the 
time,  many  had  become  the  slaves  of  their  creditors,  from  whom  they  had 
borrowed  money  at  enormous  rates  of  interest.  Solon's  experience  en- 
abled him  to  sympathize  with  all  parties,  to  two  of  which  he  belonged. 
He  repealed  the  harsh  laws  of  Draco,  and  relied  upon  the  Athenian 
love  of  fame  and  approval  as  sufficient  motives  to  good  citizenship. 
Special  acts  of  patriotism  were  rewarded  by  crowns,  public  banquets, 
places  of  honor  in  the  popular  assemblies,  or  by  a  statue  in  the  market 
place  or  the  streets.  On  the  other  hand,  a  citizen  who  remained  indif- 
ferent in  time  of  public  danger,  was  declared  to  be  disgraced. 

4.  The  name  tyrant  had  no  bad  meaning  until  the  men  who  bore  it 
made  themselves  odious  by  their  abuse  of  power.  The  earliest  tyrants 
took  sides  with  the  common  people,  and  often  secured  for  them  a  wel- 
come relief  from  the  oppressions  of  the  nobles.  The  great  danger  con- 
nected with  a  tyrany  was,  that  it  was  subject  to  no  laws,  and  was  limited 
only  by  the  tyrant's  own  good  disposition  or  his  fear  of  revolt.  This 
he  was  usually  able  to  prevent  by  means  of  a  force  of  foreign  soldiery, 
whom  he  paid  out  of  the  revenues  of  the  state. 

The  first  step  of  Pisistratus  toward  absolute  power  was  certainly  in- 
genious. "When  his  plans  were  ready  for  execution,  he  appeared  one 
day  in  the  market-place,  bleeding  with  self-inflicted  wounds,  which  he 
assured  the  people  he  had  received  in  defense  of  their  rights,  from  his 
and  their  enemies,  the  factious  nobles.  The  people,  in  their  grief  and 
indignation,  voted  him  a  guard  of  fifty  club  men.  Solon  saw  the  dan- 
ger that  lurked  in  this  measure,  but  his  remonstrances  were  unheeded. 
Pisistratus  did  not  limit  himself  to  the  fifty  men  allotted  him,  but  raised 
a  much  larger  force,  with  which  he  seized  the  Acropolis,  and  made 
himself  master  of  the  city.    His  first  tyranny  lasted   but  a  short  time; 


NOTES.  69 


\\\on  ho  w«8  driven  ftrun  Athens, and  his  property  was  sold  at  auction  for 
I  ho  henoflt  of  tho  stiito.  Aflor  he  wa«  Rone,  the  two  partleH  of  the  PImn 
iiul  the  Shnrr  (nmrrehMl  between  themselves,  and  tlie  hitter  invlte«l  Pl- 
^istiiitus  to  return.  To  exphiin  matters  to  the  Athenhms,  or,  a«  sonie  sjiy, 
lo  seeure  their  consent,  a  new  seh*Mne  was  invented.  A  t«U  and  very 
lieautiful  peasant  ulrl  was  found  in  one  of  tlieeountry  dlstrietsof  Attica, 
who,  when  arrayed  in  Rlltterin^  armor,  looke<l  Htutely  cnouKli  to  rep- 
rcsi'nt  Atliena  liers«>lf.  A  rumor  wjus  set  atloat  amouK  tlie  people  tluit 
ilu'ir  tutelary  goddess  wa8  comiUK  in  her  own  person  to  l)ring  hack  lier 
chosen  vicegerent  to  her  city.  Accordingly,  a  great  crowd  assembled 
lo  worsliip  Atliena  and  acknowledge  Plsistratus  as  their  ruler. 

The  .scctnut  tfjnutnt/,  like  the  flrst,  was  sliort;  for  his  old  enemies  made 
peaee  with  eacli  other  and  united  in  expelling  liim.  This  lime  he  did 
not  wait  to  be  recalled,  l)ut  nilsed  contributions  of  men  and  money 
iimong  the  other  cities  of(Jreece,  and  landed  with  a  great  army  at  Mar- 
at lu)n.  Here  he  was  Joined  by  a  crowd  of  friends  from  Athens,  and 
gained  an  eiusy  victory  over  the  trooi)s  that.  w<>n;  hastily  sent  to  oppose 
him.  Then  nuirching  upon  the  city  lie  secured  himself  in  power  l)y  keep- 
ing his  foreign  mercenaries,  an«i  by  sending  sons  of  the  flrst  Athenian 
families  tobe  hostages  with  his  friend  and  ally,  Lygdamis,  on  the  island  of 
Naxos.  The  gold  mines  which  he  owned  near  the  river  Strymon,  af- 
forded the  means,  not  only  of  paying  hia  troops,  but  of  gaining  favor 
with  the  Athenians  by  l)eautlfylng  their  city  with  temples  and  other 
architectural  works.  The  greatest  was  the  temple  of  the  Olympian  Zeus, 
a  colossal  structure,  .So'.)  feet  in  length  by  17.'}  in  width,  which  was 
completed  (vjO  years  after  its  foundation,  by  the  Roman  Emperor  Ha- 
drian. 

This  third  tyranny  of  Plsistratus  was  by  far  tho  longest,  hisling,  some 
say,  sixteen  years.  It  was  the  period  of  all  his  jxaceful  i-nterprises, 
among  others  the  institution  of  the  greater  Panalhciiaa,  or  twelve- 
days'  festival  in  honor  of  Athena.  It  was  distinguished  from  tlie  lesser 
Panathena'a  instituted  by  Theseus  (see  note,  p.  »il)  by  a  sacred  proces- 
sion carrying  a  crocus-colored  robe,  embroidered  with  representations 
of  the  victories  of  Athena,  to  her  temple,  the  Erechtheum,  and  more 
especially  by  recitations  of  the  poems  of  Homer,  which  Pisisiratus  had 
collected  for  this  purpose.  The  greater  Panathena'a  occurred  in  the 
third  year  ot  every  Olympiad;  tlie  others,  in  the  first,  second,  and  fourth 
years. 

5.  Probably  the  most  illustrious  victim  of  this  peculiar  custom  was 
Aristides  ig  12i))  whose  honorable  character  was  universally  known  and 
esteemed.  When  he  held  the  office  of  archon,  the  courts  of 'law  were  said 
to  be  desertetl,  because  all  suitors  felt  sjifer  in  submitting  their  causes  to 
his  arbitration. 

He  was  opposed  on  almost  every  point  of  public  policy  by  Themis- 
tocles  ['i  117  and  note),  who  desired  to  make  Athens  a  maritime  power, 
while  Aristides  wished  her  to  remain  an  agri(rultural  state.    Their  dls- 

f)utes  ran  so  high  that  the  ostracism  was  proposed,  and  Aristides  was 
lanished.  It  is  said  that  during  the  voting  he  was  asked  by  a  man 
who  could  not  write,  to  inscril)e  the  name  of  Aristides  on  an  oyster- 
shell  for  him.  "Why?"  said  the  great  archon,  "has  Aristides  ever  in- 
iured  you?"  *' No,"  said  the  man,  "nor  do  I  even  know  him  by  sight, 
but  it  vexes  me  to  hear  him  always  called  '  the  just.'"  Aristides  wrote 
his  own  name  on  the  shell,  which  was  cast  into  the  heap. 

As  he  left  his  beloved  city,  he  exclaimed,  "May  the  Athenian  peo- 
ple never  know  a  day  which  shall  force  them  to  remember  Aristides!" 
This  generous  wish  was  not  fulfilled.  The  great  crisis  of  the  Persian 
wars,  to  be  described  in  the  next  chapter,  demanded  the  best  etTort.s  of 
all  loyal  (ireeks.  At  midnight,  before  the  battle  of  Salamis  (^  11«),  Them- 
Isiocles  was  called  from  a  council  of  otficers  on  board  ship  to  meet  Aris- 
tides, who  had  crossed  in  an  open  Ixjat  from  yKgina,  to  inform  his  an- 
cient rival  of  the  danger  to  which  he  was  exjK)sed.  "At  any  time,"siiid 
the  just  man,  "it  would  become  us  to  forget  our  private  dissensions,  but 
now  especially,  in  contending  who  should  most  serve  his  country." 

His  exile  ended  with  the  victory  at  Saiamis,  which  restored  all  the 
Athenians  to  their  burned  or  shattered  homes;  and  the  following  year 
he  Avas  general-in-chief  of  the  Athenian  forces.  Three  years  after  the 
battle,  as  president  of  the  Hellenic  League,  he  was  raised  to  the  highest 
honor  ever  conferred  by  all  the  Greek  states  upon  a  citizen  of  one. 


PERIOD   III. — Frojn  the  Beginning  of  the  Persian    Wars 
to  the  Ascendeiicy  of  Macedon. 


CHAPTER   VIII. 

MARATHON,    THERMOPYL^.,    SALAMIS :     SUCCESSIVE     SUPREMACIES    OF 
ATHENS,    SPARTA,    THEBES,     MACEDON. 

E  have  learued  in   the  history  of 
Persia  (§52)  how  the  Athenians 
drew  upon  themselves  the  venge- 
ance  of  the   great    King  Darius, 
by  aiding  their  brethren   in    Asia  to 
revolt.     The  first  fleet  which  he  sent 
to    conquer   Greece  was   wrecked    at 
Mt.    Athos;    but    the    second  —  after 
burning  Carystus  and  Eretria,  on  the 
island  of  Euboea  —  landed 

B.  C.  490.  , 

100,000  men  on  the  east- 
ern coast  of  Attica.  The  Athenians, 
led  by  Milti'ades,^  met  them  upon 
the  plain  of  Marathon.  Both  armies 
fought  long  and  bravely.  The  Medes 
and  Persians  were  the  most  magnifi- 
cent soldiery  in  the  world,  and  they  outnumbered  the 
Athenians  ten  to  one.  Nevertheless,  they  were  driven  to 
their  ships  with  great  slaughter,  and  sailed  away  to  Asia. 
A  ten  years'  breathing-space  then  enabled  the  Greeks  to 
collect  their  forces. 
(70) 


A  Grecian  Soldier. 


BATTLE   Oh  SALAMIS.  7 1 

ii6.   In  the  spring  of  480,  B.  C,  the  greatest  army  that 

the  world  has  ever  seen  ($^53)  came  pouring  into  Greece. 
I'he  two  Spartan  commanders,  Leon'idas  on  land,  and 
luirybi'ades  with  his  fleet  upon  the  sea,  met  Xerxes  at 
riicrmopylai.  In  this  narrow  pass  between  Mt.  (T^ta  and 
tlie  Malian  Gulf,  a  mere  handful  of  Greeks  held  the  whole 
Persian  host  at  bay  for  more  than  a  week.  At  length  a 
treacherous  Greek  showed  the  Persians  a  path  over  the 
mountain,  by  which  they  could  attack  the  little  army  in 
the  rear.  Thus  betrayed,  Leonidas  dismissed  all  his  forces 
excepting  300  Spartans  and  a  few  hundreds  of  Thespians 
and  Thebans,  and,  rushing  upon  the  enemy,  fought  until 
every  man  but  one  was  slain. 

117.  The  gates  of  central  Greece  were  now  open,  and 
the  army  of  invaders  pressed  on.  Eurybiades  would  have 
withdrawn  the  whole  fleet  to  the  Peloponnesus,  leaving 
Athens  to  its  fate;  but  Themis'tocles,^ the  Athenian  leader, 
l)ersuaded  him  to  stay  long  enough  at  Salamis  to  allow 
the  people  of  Athens  to  find  places  of  safety.  The  oracle 
at  Delphi  had  directed  them  to  seek  refuge  in  **  wooden 
walls,"  which  Themistocles  assured  them  must  mean  their 
ships.  A  mournful  procession  of  refugees  immediately 
withdrew  from  the  city,  leaving  behind  only  a  few  who 
were  too  poor  or  too  feeble  to  be  removed.  Beautiful 
Athens  was  burnt,  in  revenge  for  the  destruction  of  Sardis. 

118.  The  great  decisive  combat  between  the  Greek  and 
the  Persian  forces,  took  place  in  the  straits  of  Salamis. 
Xerxes  himself,  from  a  golden  throne  upon  the  shore, 
watched  the  battle  between  his  magnificent  armament  of 
1200  ships  and  fewer  than  400  on  the  part  of  the  Greeks. 
But  the  Greek  pilots  knew  all  the  currents  and  soundings 
of  these  narrow  seas,  and  could  drive  the  brazen  beaks 
of  their  light  craft  straight  into  the  cumbrous  Persian 
vessels.  The  battle  was  long  and  obstinate,  but  it  ended 
in  a  glorious  victory  for  the   Greeks.     Xerxes   sailed  away 


72  THE   ANCIENT    WORLD. 

in  bitter  humiliation  to  his  own  land.  The  next  autumn, 
his  great  general,  Mardo'nius,  was  defeated  and  slain  at 
Plat3ea,  and  the  remnant  of  his  fleet  was  destroyed  the 
same  day  at   Mycale  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  ^gean. 

1 19.  The  Persian  kings  gave  up  the  attempt  to  conquer 
Greece,  but  for  two  hundred  years  they  never  ceased  to 
meddle  in  her  affairs  by  bribery  and  by  stirring  up  the 
jealousies  of  the  several  states.  Even  the  Spartan  regent 
Pausa'nias,  who  had  won  the  victory  of  Plataea,  was  per- 
suaded by  their  golden  promises  to  betray  his  country. 
His  treason,  however,  was  discovered  in  time,  and  he 
was  starved  to  death  in  a  temple  of  Athena,  his  own 
mother  bringing  the  first  stone  to  block  up  its  gates. 
Athens,  instead  of  Sparta,  now  became  the  leading  state 
in   Greece. 

120.  A  Hellenic  League  Avas  formed  for  the  protection 
of  the  islands  and  coasts  of  the  ^gean  against  the  Per- 
sians. Its  treasury,  to  which  all  the  maritime  states  con- 
tributed, was  on  the  sacred  isle  of  Delos.  "Aristi'des  the 
Just" — the  best  and  greatest  Athenian   of  his    time — was 

the  first  president  of  the  league;  and  such  con- 

■  ^''^'        fidence   did  all  men  place   in  his  wisdom  and 

nitegrity,    that    he    alone    decided    how   much    each    state 

should   pay  into  its  treasury,   and  no  one  ever  complained 

of  his  assessments. 

121.  His  successor  was  Ci'mon,  the  son  of  Miltiades. 
In  466  B.  C.,  he  gained  a  great  victory  over  the  Persians 
at  the  River  Eurymedon,  and  swept  the  coasts  of  Asia 
Minor  of  their  ships  and  armies.  Cimon's  immense  wealth 
and  generosity  made  him  the  idol  of  the  Athenians,  whose 
city  he  adorned  with  marble  colonnades  and  temples,  with 
groves  and  fountains,  until  it  became  the  glory  of  all 
Greece.  Yet  even  he  had  to  suffer,  as  Aristides  and 
Themistocles  had  suffered  before  him,  from  the  ingratitude 
and  fickleness  of  the  Athenians. 


AGE  OF  PERICLES.  73 


122.  Sparta  was  in  great  trouble  through  a  revolt  of  the 
Helots  (§  108).  These  wretched  i)eople  found  courage  at 
last  to  revenge  themselves  for  centuries  of  ill-treatment; 
and  the  Messenians  seized  the  opportunity  to  strike  a  blow 
tor  independence  (§  109).  During  the  ten  years'  war 
which  followed,  Cimon  persuaded  the  Athenians  to  forget 
their  causes  of  complaint  against  Sparta  and  send  her  aid 
in  her  distress.  He  himself  twice  led  an  army  to  her 
assistance.  But  Spartan  hatred  of  Athens  could  not  even 
now  be  suppressed.  The  Athenian  troops  were  insultingly 
dismissed;  and  so  great  was  the  vexation  at  home,  that 
Cimon  was  ostracised  as  a  friend  of  Sparta  (§  114). 

123.  The  popular  party  now  came  into  power,  with 
Per'icles,  the  most  brilliant  of  all  Athenian  leaders,  at  their 
head.  Knowing  that  freemen  can  only  be  governed  by 
reason  and  persuasion,  he  had  spent  his  youth  in  studying 
the  history  and  the  interests  of  Athens,  the  science  of  gov- 
ernment, and  the  arts  of  eloquence.  Nothing  could  exceed 
the  power  and  beauty  of  his  oratory,  or  the  influence  he 
acipiired  over  his  countrymen. 

124.  The  "Age  of  Pericles"  is  celebrated  as  the  cul- 
minating period,  both  in  the  power  and  genius  of  Athens. 
Her  maritime  empire  extended  over  all  the  Greek  coasts 
and  islands,  and  on  the  main-land  she  was  the  successful 
rival  of  Sparta.  At  the  same  time  sculptors  and  architects, 
painters  and  dramatic  poets  were  producing  the  most  per- 
fect works  of  art  that  the  world  has  ever  seen;  and  the 
liberal  encouragement  offered  to  talent  drew  to  Athens  the 
greatest  intellects  from  every  land.  Athenian  citizens  spent 
a  large  portion  of  their  time  in  discussing  public  affairs,  for 
private  business  was  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  slaves,  who 
were  three  or  four  times  as  numerous  as  the  freemen. 
Hence,  it  happened  that  the  whole  mass  of  citizens  was 
better  trained  to  civic  duties  than  was  ever  any  similar 
class   of  people,   before   or  since.     We    must   not    imagine 


74  THE  ANCIENT  WORLD. 

Attic  slaves  to  have  been  in  condition  at  all  like  the 
Helots  (§  io8).  The  Athenians  were  of  more  gentle  and 
generous  nature  than  the  Spartans,  and  no  cases  of  cruelty 
are  on  record. 

125.  The  perpetual  rivalry  of  the  two  leading  states 
occasioned  several  wars,  one  of  which  grew  from  a  dispute 
for  the  control  of  the  Delphic  oracle.  Pericles,  though 
free  from  superstition  himself,  well  understood  its  power 
over  others,  and  he  desired  to  enlist  Apollo  on  the  side  of 

Athens.     The   rashness  of  the   younger  Athen- 
^^'^'        ians  led  to  a  sad  defeat  at  Coronaea  in  Boeotia; 
and   most   of   the   allied   cities   in   central   Greece    now  re- 
sumed   their    oligarchic    governments    under    the   influence 
of  Sparta  (§105). 

126.  From  these  and  many  other  elements  of  strife  arose 
the  Peloponnesian  war,  which,  for  twenty-seven  years  (B. 
C.  431-404),  involved  all  Greece  in  calamities.  Almost 
every  summer  a  Spartan  army  ravaged  the  fields  of  Attica, 
and  the  people  took  refuge  within  the  walls  of  Athens. 
Every  nook  was  crowded;  a  plague  broke  out  among  the 
swarming  population,  who  ascribed  it  to  the  wrath  of 
Apollo,  the  especial  protector  of  the  Spartans.  Their  com- 
plaints were  loud  against  Pericles,  whose  cautious  policy 
they  were  unable  to  understand.  He  was  even  accused  of 
embezzling  the  public  funds,  and  was  heavily  fined. 

127.  Pericles  bore  their  unjust  accusations  with  admir- 
able patience,  but  his  strength  was  now  broken  by  afflic- 
tion. His  son  and  nearest  friends  had  died  of  the  plague; 
a  slow  fever  seized  the  great  statesman  himself.  As  he  lay 
dying,  his  friends  around  his  bed  were  talking  of  his  great 
deeds,  when  he  interrupted  them,  saying,  "All  that  you 
are  praising  was  due  to  the  favor  of  Heaven.  What  I 
pride  myself  upon  is  that  no  Athenian  has  ever  had  oc- 
casion to  mourn  on  my  account." 


THE  PELOPONNES/AN  IVAR,  75 

128.  The  war  grew  more  cruel  every  year.  Mitylene, 
having  revolted  against  Athens,  was  brought  back  to  its 
allegiance  by  its  own  popular  party,  which  outnumbered 
I  lie  friends  of  Sparta.  Nevertheless,  the  Athenian  assembly 
which  was  called  to  decide  the  fate  of  the  recaptured  city — 
'  irried  away  by  the  elotpience  of  Cleon,   a  violent   dem- 

-ogue  —  sentenced  all  the  men  of  Mitylene  to  death,  and 
Us  women  to  slavery!  The  author  of  this  brutal  decree 
dispatched  a  galley  to  Lesbos  with  orders  for  its  inunediate 
execution.  J  kit  a  night's  rest  brought  a  better  mind  to  the 
Athenians;  they  revoked  their  cruel  act,  and  sent  another 
galley  in  still  greater  haste  to  save  the  lives  of  the  doomed 
people. 

129.  Happily,  it  arrived  in  time;  the  Mityleneans  were 
spared,  but  the  walls  of  their  city  were  destroyed,  and  their 
fleet  was  absorbed  into  that  of  Athens.  Corcyra  soon  after- 
ward suffered  a  reign  of  terror  in  which  brothers  murdered 
brothers,  and  fathers  their  own  sons.  Sparta,  afraid  of  her 
slaves,  treacherously  murdered  2000  Helots,  the  bravest 
and,  therefore,  the  most  dangerous  of  their  class.  Floods, 
earthquake,  and  pestilence  combined  with  the  evil  passions 
of  men  to  destroy  unhappy  Hellas. 

130.  All  parties  were  now  wearied  out,  and,  in  421  B. 
C,  the  Peace  of  Nicias  provided  for  fifty  years'  truce  be- 
tween Sparta  and  Athens.  Unhappily,  war  soon  broke  out 
again,  through  the  ambition  of  Al'cibi'ades,' a  brilliant  young 
Athenian,  whose  genius  might  have  made  him  the  glory 
of  his  native  city,  but  who  was  in  fact  the  chief  occasion 
of  its  ruin.  He  persuaded  his  countrymen  to  take  part 
in  a  war  between  the  Doric  and  Ionic  colonists  in  Sicily; 
and  was  one  of  the  three  generals  who  commanded  the 
Athenian  forces.  But  he  was  soon  called  home  to  answer 
a  charge  of  sacrilege:  namely,  of  having  burlesqued  the 
Eleusinian  Mysteries  (§  96)  in  a  drunken  frolic.  He  took 
refuge  with   the   Spartans,   and   betrayed   to   them   all    the 


76  THE  ANCIENT    WORLD. 

plans  of  the  Athenians.  The  Sicilian  expedition  ended  in 
a  miserable  failure.  The  Athenian  fleet  was  destroyed  in 
the  harbor  of  Syracuse;  the  soldiers  perished  either  in 
battle  or  of  starvation ;  and  the  few  who  survived  were  sold 
as  slaves. 

131.  All  the  rivals,  enemies,  and  unwilling  subjects  of 
Athens  now  took  advantage  of  her  distress.  Sparta  made 
a  treaty  with  the  king  of  Persia,  offering  to  put  him  in 
possession  of  the  whole  Grecian  territory  north  of  the 
Corinthian  Gulf,  with  all  the  islands  and  coasts  of  the 
^gean.  But  Alcibiades  had  found  a  new  refuge  with  the 
Persian  governor  of  Asia  Minor,  and  by  skillful  flatteries  he 
partly  defeated  the  Spartan  plans.  By  several  great  naval 
victories  he  regained  control  of  the  grain-fleets  in  the  Black 
Sea,  and  so  relieved  a  famine  in  Athens.  For  these  serv- 
ices his  offenses  were  pardoned,  and  he  was  made  general 
with  unlimited  powers. 

132.  Persian  gold  and  Spartan  skill,  however,  turned  the 
scale   against   the  Athenians;    and    they  suffered   a   defeat 

at  ^gos-Potami,  which  ended  their  supremacy 
in  Greece.  The  Spartans  besieged  and  took 
Athens.  Its  walls  were  destroyed,  and  its  government  was 
remodeled  on  the  Spartan  pattern.  The  chief  power  was 
committed  to  Thirty  Tyrants,  who  for  eight  months  sub- 
jected the  citizens  to  fines,  imprisonment,  or  death  at  their 
will.  The  second  period  of  Spartan  supremacy  (B.  C. 
404-371)  was  marked  by  the  overthrow  of  free  govern- 
ments throughout  Greece. 

133.  But  Sparta's  leadership  was  not  easy  to  maintain. 
The  king  of  Persia  was  enraged  by  the  aid  she  had  given 
to  his  rebellious  brother  (§  58),  and  a  league  of  many 
Grecian  states,  disgusted  by  her  overbearing  tyranny, 
brought  on  the  Corinthian  war.  Sparta  had  her  best  and 
greatest  man,  the  king  Ages'ila'us,  for  her  chief  commander, 
and  gained  decisive  victories  over  her  enemies  at  Corinth 


DEATH  OF  SOCK  AT KS,  77 

and  Coronaea.  A  great  naval  battle  with  the  Athenians 
and  Persians  off  Cnidus  was  less  fortunate  to  her,  for  it 
resulted  in  the  destruction  of  the  greater  part  of  her  fleet 
and  the  rapid  decline  of  her  power. 

134.  Athens  meanwhile  had  been  ics(  ind  from  Spartan 
rule  by  Thrasybu'lus,  one  of  her  exiled  citizens,  who  mus- 
tered an  army  of  his  fellow-exiles  and  defeated  the  Spartan 
forces  at  Phy'le  and  Muny'chia.  The  laws  of  Solon  were 
restored.  The  only  blot  upon  the  happy  time  was  the  ex- 
ecution of  the  philosopher  Soc'rates  —  one  of  the  best  and 
wisest  men  that  ever  lived — on  a  false  charge  of  having 
introduced  a  new  worship  and  corrupted  the  Athenian 
\ outh.  Socrates  was,  in  fact,  too  wise  to  believe  in  all  the 
superstitions  of  the  Greeks;  but  he  was  also  too  prudent  to 
destroy  the  childish  faith  of  his  pupils  until  they  were  able 
to  receive  something  better  in  the  place  of  it.  He  refused 
to  accept  his  life  on  the  condition  of  forbearing  to  teach; 
for  the  great  aim  and  passion  of  his  life  was  to  promote 
virtue  and  wisdom  in  the  young.  He  spent  the  thirty  days 
of  his  imprisonment  in  gheerful  converse  with  his  friends, 
expressing  to  the  last  his  firm  conviction  of  the  soul's  im- 
mortality. When  the  appointed  moment  arrived,  he  drank 
the  poison  hemlock  and  calmly  expired. 

135.  The  Spartans,  weary  at  length  of  the  disastrous  war, 
sent  a  messenger  to  the  Persian  court,  begging  the  Great 
King  to  interfere  and  settle  the  affairs  of  Greece.  This 
was  his  sentence:  "King  Artaxerxes  thinks  it  just  that  the 
cities  in  Asia  and  the  islands  of  Clazom'enae  and  Cyprus 
should  belong  to  him.  He  thinks  it  just  to  leave  all  the 
other  Grecian  cities,  both  small  and  great,  independent, 
except  Lemnos,  Imbros,  and  Scyros,  which  are  to  belong 
to  Athens  as  of  old."— B.  C.   387. 

136.  Spartan  power  having  fallen,  Thebes  became  the 
next  leader  of  the  Greeks.  This  Boeotian  city  had  been 
for   some   years   governed    by  a   Spartan    garrison;    it  was 


78  THE   ANCIENT    WORLD. 

rescued  by  the  bold  and  ingenious  contrivance  of  one  of 
its  own  noblemen,  and  became  the  head  of  a  new  confed- 
eracy numbering  seventy  cities.  The  Theban  Epam'inon'das 
was  the  greatest  general  whom  Greece  ever  produced,  and 
his  purity  of  character  was  still  more  admirable  than  his 
military  genius.  At  Leuctra,  a  few  miles  north- 
■  ^^''  west  of  Plataea,  the  most  fiercely  contested  of 
all  Grecian  battles  was  fought,  resulting  in  a  victory  foi 
Epaminondas,  which  ended  the  leadership  of  Sparta. 

137.  Four  times  he  invaded  the  Peloponnesus,  where  he 
established  an  Arcadian  League  to  balance  the  Spartan 
power,  and  called  home  the  exiled  Messenians,  who  had 
been  for  three  hundred  years  a  banished  race,  but  whom  he 
now  settled  in  the  homes  of  their  fathers  (§  109).  Sparta 
itself,  which  in  all  the  centuries  of  its  existence  had  never 
seen  an  enemy  in  arms,  was  threatened  by  the  Thebans, 
but  it  was  saved  by  the  energy  of  its  old  king  Agesilaus. 
During  his  fourth  invasion  of  southern  Greece,  Epami- 
nondas was  slain  in  the  fatal  battle  of  Mantinea.  With  his 
death  the  Theban  power  fell,  and  Athens  enjoyed  another 
short  period  of  leadership  in  Greece. 

138.  The  kingdom  of  Macedon  on  the  north  had  now 
become  powerful  enough  to  be  regarded  with  fear.  The 
Macedonians  were  barbarians  (§  102),  but  their  kings 
claimed  to  be  descendants  of  Hercules,  and  as  such  had 
been  admitted  to  a  share  in  the  Olympic  Games.  Philip 
II,  one  of  the  ablest  of  these  kings,  had  in  his  boyhood 
been  a  hostage  at  Thebes,  where  he  had  learned  the  art 
of  war  from  Epaminondas.  He  had,  moreover,  become 
proficient  in  the  Greek  language;  while  he  had  acutely 
studied  the  fatal  dissensions  among  the  Greeks,  which 
promised  a  fair  field  for  his  talents  both  as  general  and 
as  orator. 

139.  Soon  after  his  return  to  Macedon  and  assumption 
of  the   crown,    Athens   became  weakened   by  the   ''Social 


PHILIP'S  SUPREAfACY,  79 

War,"  in  which  many  of  her  late  allies  and  subject  states 
turned  against  her.  Philip  seized  the  opj)ortunity  to  con- 
(pier  all  her  dependencies  on  the  Thermaic  Gulf.  Then, 
availing  himself  of  the  Sacred  War*  to  interfere  in  central 
(Ireece,  he  was  made  a  member  of  the  Amphictyonic 
Council  (§  104)  and  commander  of  its  forces. 

140.  Demos'thenes,  the  great  Athenian  orator,  saw  the 
danger  and  used  all  his  eloquence  to  avert  it.  It  was  in 
vain;  gold  and  persuasion  were  working  secretly  for  Philip, 
while  his  arms  were  advancing  in  the  north;  and  at  length 
the  great  battle  of  Chaerone'a,  in  which  his 
army    defeated    that    of    Thebes    and    Athens,  '  ^^ ' 

made  all  Greece  subject  to  Macedon.  The  Congress  of 
Corinth,  the  next  year,  acknowledged  Philip's  supremacy, 
and  appointed  him  to  command  the  Hellenic  forces  in  a 
war  which  was  now  preparing  against  Persia.  But  Philip 
was  murdered  at  a  feast,  and  this  new  enterprise  was  left 
to  the  yet  greater  genius  of  his  son  Alexander. 

Point  out,  on  Maps  2  and  3,  Marathon,  Salamis,  Plataea,  Eretria, 
Carystus,  Thebes,  Coronaea,  Chreronea,  Corcyra,  Corinth.  The  Ther- 
maic  Gulf.     Macedonia.     The    Hellespont.     Thrace. 

The  authorities  for  this  chapter  are  the  same  as  for  the  preceding. 

NOTES. 

1.  Miltiades,  though  an  Athenian,  had  been  prince  or  "tyrant"  of 
the  Cliersonese— that  narrow  tongue  of  land  north  of  the  Hellespont- 
owing  to  a  curious  incident  that  occurred  during  the  first  reign  of  Plsis- 
tratus. 

His  uncle,  also  named  Miltiades,  was  sitting  one  day  at  the  door  of 
his  mansion,  when  he  saw  approaching  him  a  group  of  men  whom  he 
knew  to  be  foreigners  by  their  singular  dress  and  by  their  long  spears. 
"With  his  usual  courtesy  he  invited  them  to  become  his  guests;  the 
strangers  gladly  consented,  and  soon  told  their  story. 

They  were  Thracians  from  the  Chersonese,  where  their  countrymen 
were  even  now  hard  pressed  by  the  hostility  of  a  neighliorlng  tribe. 
These  men  had  been  sent  to  ask  direction  from  Apollo  at  Delphi  (#,09),  and 
had  been  commanded  by  the  priestess  to  choose  for  their  ally  the  first 
man  who  should  offer  them  hospitality  after  they  quitted  the  temple. 
They  had  traveled  all  through   Phocis  and  Boeotia  without  receiving 


*  So  called  because  the  Phocians  seized  the  treasures  of  Apollo';- 
temple  at  Delphi,  and  the  Thebans  undertook  to  punish  the  sacrilege. 


8o  THE  ANCIENT   WORLD. 


any  attention;  now  they  gladly  hailed  Miltiades  as  their  leader,  and 
begged  him  to  found  a  Greek  colony  on  the  Hellespont.  It  happened 
that  Miltiades,  as  well  as  many  other  nobles,  was  on  bad  terms  with 
Pisistratus.  A  large  party  of  Athenians  joined  him  in  establishing  an 
independent  state  in  the  Chersonese,  and  victory  rewarded  the  Thracian 
guests  for  their  obedience  to  the  oracle.  As  Miltiades  had  no  son, 
his  sovereignty  passed  in  turn  to  his  two  nephews,  of  whom  one  com- 
manded at  Marathon.  He  had  drawn  upon  him  the  wrath  of  Darius 
by  conquering  for  Athens  the  two  islands  of  Lemnos  and  Imbros,  so 
that,  when  the  Persian  fleet  advanced  in  B.  C.  490,  he  hHd  to  flee  and 
take  refuge  in  his  native  city. 

Here  he  was  chosen  to  be  one  of  the  ten  generals  who  commanded 
one  day  at  a  time  by  turns;  and  it  was  his  energetic  spirit  that  mainly 
decided  the  question  whetlier  at  Marathon  ten  thousand  Athenians 
should  attack  one  hundred  thousand  of  what  were  hitherto  i-egarded  as 
far  better  soldiers  than  themselves. 

The  other  states  of  Greece  stood  aloof;  only  the  friendly  little  city  of 
Plataea  sent  all  the  troops  she  had— one  thousand  men— and  these  ar- 
rived just  on  the  eve  of  battle.  The  Greek  force  was  drawn  up  on  the 
eastern  slope  of  the  mountains  that  overlook  the  plain  of  Marathon. 
"The  trumpet  sounded  for  action;  and,  chanting  the  hymn  of  battle, 
the  little  army  bore  down  upon  the  host  of  the  foe.  .  .  .  Instead  of 
advancing  at  the  usual  slow  pace  of  the  phalanx,  Miltiades  brought  his 
men  on  at  a  run.  They  were  all  trained  in  the  exercises  of  the  palaestra, 
so  that  there  was  no  fear  of  their  ending  the  charge  in  breathless  ex- 
haustion; and  it  was  of  the  deepest  importance  for  him  to  traverse  as 
rapidly  as  possible  the  mile  or  so  of  level  ground  that  lay  between  the 
mountain-fort  and  the  Persian  outposts,  and  so  to  get  his  troops  into 
close  action  before  the  Asiatic  cavalry  could  mount,  form,  and  maneuver 
against  him." 

The  combat  that  followed  is  ranked  by  Sir  E.  Creasy,  the  author 
above  quoted,  among  the  "Fifteen  Decisive  Battles  of  the  World;"  for 
on  its  result  "depended,  not  merely  the  fate  of  two  armies,  but  the 
whole  future  progress  of  human  civilization."  "  It  secured  for  mankind 
the  intellectual  treasures  of  Athens,  the  growth  of  free  institutions,  the 
liberal  enlightenment  of  the  western  world,  and  the  gradual  ascendency 
for  many  ages  of  the  great  principles  of  European  civilization." 

Soon  after  the  battle,  Miltiades  asked  the  Athenians  for  seventy  ships 
furnished  with  men  and  stores.  He  did  not  make  known  his  purpose, 
except  that  it  was  to  enrich  Athens.  Glad  and  grateful  for  the  victory, 
the  people  could  refuse  him  nothing,  and,  moreover,  they  imagined  that 
he  was  going  to  surprise  some  treasure  city  of  Darius  and  gain  wealth 
for  them  all.  But  this  time  Miltiades  was  only  bent  on  gratifying  a 
private  revenge.  He  laid  siege  to  Paros,  which  was  strongly  fortified, 
and  repelled  all  his  attacks.  Grievously  wounded,  he  returned  to  Athens, 
where  he  was  immediately  brought  into  court  on  the  capital  charge  of 
having  deceived  the  people.  His  friends  could  bring  forward  no  other 
defense  than  the  two  names  "  Lemnos  "  and  "  Marathon."  These  availed 
to  commute  his  sentence  of  death  into  a  fine  of  $62,500,  which  covered 
the  cost  of  the  expedition;  but,  during  the  year  following  his  great 
victory,  Miltiades  died  in  prison,  unable  to  discharge  this  debt  to  the 
state,  which  was  afterwards  paid  by  his  son. 

2.  The  ambition  of  Themistocles  set  him  against  all  who  were  in 
power  before  him,  of  whom  the  greatest  was  Aristides.  After  the  vic- 
tory at  Marathon,  he  became  moody  and  restless,  and  remarked  to  his 
friends  that  the  trophy  of  Miltiades  would  not  suflTer  him  to  sleep.  His 
ambition,  however,  together  with  his  great  ability,  was  of  great  serv- 
ice to  his  country;  for  he  alone  seems  to  have  perceived  that  the 
battle  at  Marathon  was  not  the  end,  but  only  the  beginning,  of  the 
struggle  with  the  Persian  Empire,  and  that  Athens  must  be  prepared 
by  increasing  her  naval  power.  To  this  end  he  persuaded  his  fellow- 
citizens  to  spend  the  revenue  from  the  silver  mines  at  Laurium  in 
building  ships,  instead  of  dividing  it,  as  had  been  usual,  among  the 
free-born  Athenians.  A  war  between  Athens  and  ^gina  furnished  the 
pretext;  but,  when  news  arrived  in  Greece  that  Xerxes  was  mustering  his 
enormous  forces  for  a  new  invasion,  Themistocles  persuaded  the  Athen- 
ians to  make  peace  with  their  rival  neighbors,  and  join  with  all  faithful 
Greeks  in  the  defense  against  Persia.    He  was  the  soul  of  the  movement 


NOTES.  8l 


that  oiule<l  in  the  victory  of  SiUamls,  and  afterwards  Rocurcd  the  re- 
Imikling  of  Athens  and  the  fortification  of  her  jwrt  in  spite  of  thojcal- 
«»us  opiMKsHlon  of  tlic  Spartans. 

Hut  the  nlory  of  Tlienilstoeles  ended  with  the  Persian  wars.  He  had 
already  enrlehed  himself  hy  unfair  means.  He  was  now  accused  of 
having  part  in  the  treacherous  plans  of  Tausanlas  (j>  Ih')*  After  extensive 
wandcrlnus  he  took  refuge  with  the  Persian  king  who  had  succeeded 
Xerxi's,  Un«l  proinls»'<l  to  aid  him  In  coiKjuerlng  the  (Jrecks.  Art^jxerxes 
was  d«'light«'d,  anil  gjive  him  at  once  three  cities,  whose  tribute  would 
pr«>vlde  his  supp«>rt.  Ihit,  with  all  his  selfish  ambition,  Themlstocles 
probably  never  intended  really  to  Iwtray  ills  country;  and,  to  avoid  ful- 
filling li'is  promise  to  the  king,  lie  is  said  to  have  poisoued  himself.  He 
had  U'en  In  exile  twenty-two  years. 

3.  Alcibiades  was  tlie  most  popular  Atlienlan  of  his  day;  not  only 
on  account  of  Iiis  personal  beauty  and  brilliant  talents,  but  of  liis  great 
wealth,  which,  joined  with  liis  gayety  of  temiuM-,  led  him  to  provide 
anuisements  for  the  people  on  a  most  liberal  scale.  When  the  Slclliarf 
envoys  applied  to  Alliens  for  help,  he  eagerly  seized  the  opportunity 
ft)r  adventure,  iioping  also  to  lead  his  fellow-citizens  to  the  conquest  of 
Carthage. 

Niclas  was  more  prudent;  he  persuaded  tlie  Atlienians  to  send  mes- 
sengers into  Sicily  to  find  out  wnetlier  the  people  of  Egesta  were  able 
to  fulfill  their  share  in  the  undertaking.  But  the  mes.'-engers  were  de- 
ceived by  a  curious  trick.  They  saw  in  tlie  temple  at  P^gesta.  a  mag- 
nificent display  of  altar-furniture,  which  they  supposed  to  be  solid  gola, 
but  wliich  was  in  fact  only  silver-gilt.  They  were  invited  to  a  long 
succession  of  private  entertainments,  and  were  surprised  to  find  every 
house  supplied  with  glittering  table-service  of  gold  and  silver;  not 
knowing  that  the  cunning  Egesteans  pa.ssed  on  these  precious  utensils 
from  house  to  house.  So  they  returnetl  to  Athens  to  urge  an  expedition 
in  aid  of  such  wealthy  allies.  The  plan  was  very  popular;  volunteers 
crowded  the  recruiting  offices,  and  the  generals  had  aifliculty  in  restrict- 
ing tlie  number  that  should  be  allowed  to  go. 

The  Dorian  Ijcague  in  Sicily  had  for  its  head  the  powerful  city  of 
Syracuse,  which  had  been  founded  by  Corinthians  alx)ut  B.  C.  734,  and, 
in  the  war  then  raging  In  Greece,  it  had  Joined  the  Peloponnesian  Con- 
federacy. The  great  operation  of  the  war  was  the  siege  of  Syracuse  by 
the  Atlienian  fleet.  After  its  failure,  the  besiegers  might  still  have 
withdrawn  in  safety,  but  for  an  eclipse  of  the  moon,  which  occurre<l  on 
the  very  night  before  their  proposeti  departure.  The  soothsayers  de- 
clared that  the  army  must  remain  just  where  it  was  for  three  times 
nine  days.  Nicias  was  too  superstitious  to  follow  his  better  judgment; 
the  Syracusans  heard  of  his  plans,  and,  after  defeating  the  Athenians 
in  a  naval  battle,  blocked  up  the  entrance  to  the  harbor,  and  cut  off 
every  way  of  escape,  either  by  land  or  sea. 

Alcibiades,  having  been  condemned  to  death  by  the  Athenian  Judges, 
made  himself  a  great  favorite,  first  with  the  Spartans,  and  afterwards 
with  the  Persians,  with  whom  he  successively  took  refuge.  But  the 
spoiled  child  of  Athens  was  at  length  restored  to  her  favor.  "The  rec- 
ords of  proceedings  against  him  were  sunk  in  the  sea,  liis  property 
was  restored,  the  priests  were  ordered  to  recant  their  curses,  and  he  was 
appointed  commander-in-diief  of  all  the  land  and  sea  forces."  Some 
reverses,  however,  gave  new  power  to  liis  enemies;  he  went  into  volun- 
tary exile,  and  ended  his  days  as  a  sort  of  independent  chief  in  the 
Tliracian  Cliersonesus. 

4.  This  was  Pelopidas,  a  young  Theban  of  great  wealth  and  influence, 
who  had  taken  refuge  at  Athens  B.  C.  382,  on  the  seizure  of  the  citadel 
of  Thebes  l)y  the  Spartans.  Here,  in  secret  agreement  with  Phyllidas, 
secretary  of  the  Thehan  government,  he  planned  with  his  fellow-exiles 
the  deliverance  of  their  native  city.  Phyllidas  invited  the  principal 
Spartan  leaders  to  a  banquet  at  his  house,  and  when  they  were  some- 
what stupid  with  food  and  wine,  informed  them  that  he  was  going  to 
introduce  some  Thelmn  ladies.  At  this  moment,  a  messenger  brought  a 
letter  to  Archias,  the  chief  general,  begging  his  iniine<liate  attention, 
as  it  contained  a  matter  of  importance.  But  the  general  thrust  tlie  let- 
ter under  the  cushions  of  liis  couch,  saying,  "Serious  matters  to-morrow.'* 

Pelopidas  and  eleven   young  friends,  who  had  arrived  that  day  in 
HisL— 6L 


82  THE  ANCIENT   WORLD. 


the  city,  disguised  as  hunters,  now  entered  the  hall  in  the  long  white 
veils  and  festive  garb  of  women.  They  dispersed  themselves  carelessly 
among  the  guests,  and  were  courteously  received;  but,  as  one  of  the 
Spartan  lords  attempted  to  lift  the  veil  of  the  person  who  was  address- 
ing him,  he  received  a  mortal  wound.  Swords  were  now  drawn  from 
beneath  the  silken  robes,  and  no  Spartan  left  the  room  alive.  The 
prisons  were  thrown  open,  and  500  honorable  citizens,  who  had  suflfered 
a  three  years'  captivity  rather  than  submit  to  Spartan  rule,  joined  the 
forces  of  the  revolutionists.  As  day  dawned,  the  people  were  summoned 
to  the  market-place,  and  a  unanimous  vote  affirmed  the  independence 
of  Thebes.  The  Spartan  garrison  in  the  Cadmea  (see  note  1,  Ch.  VI), 
deprived  of  its  officers,  and  despairing  of  reinforcements,  speedily  sur- 
rendered. 

For  fifteen  years  after  this,  Pelopidas  rendered  distinguished  service 
to  his  native  city,  both  in  war  and  diplomacy,  and  fell  in  battle,  in  de- 
fense of  the  Thessalian  allies  of  Thebes  against  the  tyrant  Alexander  of 
Pherse,  B.  C.  364. 

5.  Epaminondas,  though  of  noble  birth,  was  born  and  reared  in  pov- 
erty. His  principal  teacher  was  a  Pythagorean  philosopher  (g  153),  Lysis 
of  Tarentum;  and  he  illustrated  the  highest  virtues  of  the  sect  in  the 
truthfulness,  purity,  and  justice  of  his  character.  Though  Pelopidas 
was  his  dearest  friend,  he  took  no  part  in  the  scheme  above  mentioned 
(note  4),  because  it  involved  deceit  and  the  possible  shedding  of  innocent 
blood;  but  he  constantly  urged  a  manly  resistance  of  the  Theban  youth 
to  the  Spartans,  and  had  raised  their  confidence  by  matching  them  in 
athletic  contests  with  these  rivals. 

An  eight  years'  war  followed  the  expulsion  of  the  Spartans  from 
Thebes.  All  the  Boeotian  cities,  excepting  two,  cast  off"  the  Spartan  in- 
fluence (§  105)  and  formed  popular  governments,  joining  themselves  at 
the  same  time  in  a  new  "  Boeotian  League,"  with  Thebes  at  its  head. 

In  the  spring  of  371  B.  C,  a  congress  of  all  the  Grecian  states  met  at 
Sparta,  for  the  purpose  of  putting  an  end  to  the  war.  When  the  treaty 
was  drawn  up,  Sparta  signed  it  for  the  whole  Laconian  confederacy;  but 
each  of  the  other  states  was  expected  to  sign  separately.  Athens  con- 
sented to  this,  but  Epaminondas,  representing  Thebes,  clamed  his  right 
to  ratify  the  treaty  in  the  name  of  the  whole  Boeotian  League,  of  which 
his  city  was  as  truly  the  head  as  Sparta  of  Laconia.  But  this  was  de- 
nied him,  and  the  war  between  Thebes  and  Sparta  still  went  on.  Cle- 
ombrotus,  the  Spartan  king,  invading  Boeotia,  was  defeated  and  slain 
in  the  battle  of  Leuctra,  where  the  new  tactics  of  Epaminondas  were 
first  put  to  the  proof.  The  second  Spartan  supremacy,  which  had  lasted 
34  years  Irom  the  battle  of  ^gos-Potami  (g  132),  now  gave  way  to  a  nine 
years'  supremacy  of  Thebes,  which  was  to  end  B.  C.  362,  at  the  death  of 
Epaminondas. 

6.  Agesilaus  II.  ascended  the  Spartan  throne  B.  C.  398,  on  the  death 
of  his  brother  Agis.  In  one  of  the  earliest  years  of  his  reign  he  led  an 
army  into  Asia,  defeated  two  powerful  satraps,  Tissaphernes  and  Phar- 
nabazus,  and  was  about  to  advance  to  the  very  heart  of  the  Persian 
empire,  when  the  five  ephors,  who  were  supreme  in  Sparta,  even  over 
the  kings,  summoned  him  home.  He  wrote  back,  "  We  have  reduced 
most  of  Asia,  driven  back  the  barbarians,  made  arms  abundant  in  Ionia. 
But  since  you  bid  me,  according  to  the  decree,  come  home,  I  shall  fol- 
low my  letter,  and  may,  perhaps,  be  even  before  it.  For  my  command 
is  not  mine,  but  my  country's  and  her  allies."  He  immediately  marched 
by  Xerxes'  route,  from  Asia  to  Greece. 

Sparta  was  now  engaged  in  war  against  a  powerful  league  of  states, 
and  had  just  gained  a  great  victory  over  the  allies  at  Corinth.  Agesi- 
laus, hearing  of  it,  exclaimed,  "Alas  for  Greece !  she  has  killed  enough 
of  her  sons  to  have  conquered  all  the  barbarians."  He  himself  defeated 
the  allies  at  Coroneia,  in  Boeotia,  and  ravaged  the  territories  of  Argos 
and  Corinth.  It  was  with  his  full  approval  that  Phcebidas,  a  Spartan 
captain,  seized  the  Cadmea  in  382  B.  C,  and  that  eleven  years  later 
Thebes  was  excluded  from  the  peace,  and  the  fatal  campaign  of  Leuctra 
began.  In  the  spring  of  361  B.  C,  Agesilaus,  now  eighty  years  of  age, 
crossed  the  sea  with  a  band  of  soldiers,  to  the  aid  of  Tachos,  king  of 
Egypt,  who  had  revolted  against  Persia.  The  appearance  of  the  little, 
lame,  old  man,  a  true  Spartan  in  his  contempt  for  kingly  pomp  and 


NOTES,  83 


splomlor,  oxcltnl  ridicule  ninoiiK  the  l«:Kyptiuns;  hut  when  AkohIIhus 
transferre<l  his  jiUI  t«»  Neetannhls,  who,  In  turn,  Imd  risen  against  TiwhoH. 
Ihe  iniportane.'  of  Ihe  litth-  Spartan  was  felt,  for  Neetanahls  obtained 
the  throne.  Anesllaus  ilied  on  his  march  to  Cyrene,  whence  he  was  to 
have  sailed  to  Sparta;  his  IxKly,  enihalnied  In  wax,  was  convey<Ml  with 
urt'at  honors  to  his  native  city.  An  ancient  oracle  had  foretold  that 
Sparta  wouhl  lose  her  power  un<ler  a  lame  sovereign.  The  prediction 
was  fullUled,  hut  throuuh  no  fault  of  the  kins,  who  has  been  justly 
called  *•  .Sparta's  most  perfect  I'ilizen  and  most  consummate  general.  In 
many  ways,  perhaps,  her  greatest  num."  He  had  all  the  virtues  of  his 
countrymen  without  their  too  common  faults  of  avari<'e  ami  deceit. 
Ills  reinark  upon  the  victory  at  Corinth,  shows  that  his  patriotism  v/rw 
not  mirrowed  to  tlu'  boundaries  of  his  own  state.  Many  Incidents  are 
preservetl  which  prove  his  warm  and  tender  atrection,  both  for  his  own 
children  and  for  friends,— a  rare  trait  amonu;  the  Spartans. 

He  wivs  the  nineteenth  king  of  the  Proclld  or  Kuryi)ontld  line.  It 
will  be  remembered  (g  KW)  that  there  were  two  lines  of  Spartan  kings 
Teamed  from  twin  grandsons  of  Hercules,  I'umIc^  and  Eurysthenes;  but 
EuryiK)n,  the  thlnl  Proclld  king,  gave  his  nun.    i.»  his  house. 

7.  Demosthenes,  the  greatesr  of  ancient  orators,  was  born  about  385 
B.C.  He  was  only  seven  yeai-s  old  when  his  father  died,  and  the  ample 
property  which  w'as  left  for  Demosthenes  and  his  sister,  in  the  care  of 
three  kinsmen,  was  shamefully  sciuandered  before  the  boy  was  able  to 
plead  for  his  rights  In  the  Athenian  courts.  His  sense  of  wrong,  mean- 
while, fostered  in  him  habits  of  self-reliance  and  independent  judgment, 
and  incited  him  to  a  diligent  study  of  oratory,  by  which  he  hoped  to 
win  at  last  a  favorable  decision.  His  discouragements  were  many;  for 
he  had  a  weak  constitution  and  defective  utterance;  but  his  persever- 
ance was  rewarded,  and,  at  the  age  of  twenty-one,  he  regained  from  one 
of  his  guardians  a  great  part  of  his  property.  The  power  which  he 
had  gained  for  his  own  interests  he  now  devoted  to  the  service  of  his 
countrj'.  Philip  of  Macedon  had  seized  some  possessions  of  Athens 
north  of  the  -Egean,  and  was  daily  increasing  his  influence  among  the 
states  of  Greece.  Demosthenes  was  almost  the  only  Greek  who  had  the 
courage  and  the  honesty  to  withstand  the  bribes  and  flatteries  of  the 
king.  His  Philippics  are  the  most  splendid  and  .spirited  remonstrances 
against  unjust  power  that  any  language  contains.  His  Olynthiac  Ora- 
tions did  indeed  move  his  countrymen  to  fit  out  an  expedition  for  the 
relief  of  Olynthus  when  besieged  by  Philip;  but  the  rescue  was  pre- 
vented by  a  treacherous  plot  in  the  town  itself,  and  the  whole  Chalcldlc 
peninsula  fell  into  the  power  of  Macedon. 

After  the  death  of  Philip,  Demosthenes  was  the  soul  of  the  new 
struggle  for  Greek  independence.  The  Athenians,  though  submitting  to 
Alexander,  steadily  resisted  his  demand  for  the  surrender  of  their  great 
orator.  Demosthenes  wa.s  subsequently  thrown  into  jjrison  through  an 
intrigue  of  the  Macedonian  party,  and  escaping  with  the  secret  permis- 
sion of  the  magistrates,  remained  in  exile  until  the  death  of  Alexander. 
A  state-trireme  was  then  sent  to  bring  him  back  in  triumph  to  his  na- 
tive city,  and  the  most  glorious  day  of  ills  life  seemed  to  mark  a  new 
dawn  of  Athenian  freedom.  The  "Lamian*  War,"  however,  ended  in 
defeat  (076),  and  Antipat^r,  regent  of  Macedonia,  advanced  upon  Athens. 
Deserted  by  all  her  allies,  that  city  was  forced  to  overthrow  her  free 
government  at  the  Macedonian  dictation,  to  receive  a  foreign  garrison 
in  her  fortress  of  Munychla,  and  condemn  to  death  Demosthenes  and  his 
friends,  who  had  fled  at  the  approach  of  ihe  conqueror.  Demosthenes  had 
taken  refuge  in  the  temple  of  Poseidon  at  Calauria.  He  had  long  carried 
poison  about  him,  In  exnectatlon  of  such  an  emergency;  and,  by  its 
means,  he  escaped  tlie  otncer  of  Antipater,  dying  B.  C.  322. 


*  80  called  because  its  principal  action  was  the  siege  of  Lamia,  in  Thessaly,  which 
wan  held  by  Antipater,  the  Macedonian  Regent,  against  the  confederate  Qreeks. 


CHAPTER   TX. 


GREEK    LITERATURE,    PHILOSOPHY,    AND    ART. 


IT  is  time  for  a  brief  sketch  of  those  poets,  historians, 
and  philosophers,  to  whom  —  even  more  than  to 
her  great  generals  and  statesmen  —  Greece  owes  her 
fame;  and  whose  dominion  in  the  minds  of  civilized  men 
has  never  been  shaken,  though  their  native  land  has  for 
ages  been  trampled  by  barbarians. 

142.  For  one  practical  reason,  if  for  no  other,  poetry 
must  have  existed  in  Greek  literature  long  before  prose. 
The  art  of  writing,  though  very  early  known  to  the  Greeks, 
was  for  a  long  time  used  almost  exclusively  for  inscriptions 
on  bronze  or  marble  tablets  in  temples  and  palaces.  There 
were  no  cheap  and  convenient  materials  for  writing;  so  that 
a  ship-master,  whom  Homer  mentions  in  the  Odyssey,  had 
no  written  list  of  his  cargo,  but  carried  the  items  in  his 
memory.  Now  a  poet  might  produce  his  song  or  epic, 
and  retain  it,  by  the  help  of  rhythm,  in  his  memory,  until 
others  had  learned  it  from  his  lips  (§94);  but  this  would 
be  almost  impossible  in  the  case  of  long  compositions  in 
prose. 

184) 


HOMER  AND   HES10D,  85 

143.  A  better  reason  is  found  in  the  intense  love  of 
l)oetry  and  music,  which  was  universal  among  the  Greeks. 
All  their  life,  public  and  private,  in  war  or  peace,  was 
associated  with  song.  Hymns  to  the  gods  were  probably 
their  earliest  compositions.  Triumphal  odes  welcomed  the 
victor  at  the  (lames  (^102)  home  to  his  native  city.  The 
ten  thousand  Athenians  rushed  down  from  the  heights,  and 
across  the  plain  of  Marathon,  singing  a  battle-hymn,  which 
the  poet  /Es'chylus,  who  was  one  of  them,  has  preserved 
for  us.  The  Greek  ships  moved  into  the  combat  at  Salamis 
to  a  similar  strain:  '*On,  sons  of  the  Greeks!  Strike  for 
the  freedom  of  your  country!  Strike  for  the  freedom  of 
your  children  and  your  wives!  —  for  the  shrines  of  your 
fathers'  gods  and  the  sepulchers  of  your  sires." 

144.  The  two  great  epic  (narrative  and  heroic)  poets  of 
Hellas  were  Homer  and  He'siod.  Homer'  was  an  Ionian 
of  Asia — of  what  city  can  not  now  be  known,  though 
many  contended  for  the  honor  of  his  birth.  An  English 
poet  has  written : 

♦'Seven  ancient  cities  claimed  the  Homer  dead, 
Through  which  the  living  Homer  begged  his  bread." 

This  may  not  be  literally  true,  but  it  is  probable  that  the 
"Father  of  Poetry"  lived  a  sad  and  wandering  life,  shad- 
owed in  his  old  age  by  blindness.  He  lived  about  850 
B.  C.  Besides  the  Iliad,  which  has  been  mentioned  (§91, 
92),  he  was  the  author  of  the  Odyssey,  which  described  the 
adventures  of  Ulys'ses,  king  of  Ithaca,  after  the  fall  of 
Troy. 

145.  Hesiod^lived  about  a  hundred  years  later,  in  Boeotia, 
where  he  tended  his  flocks  upon  the  slopes  of  Mt.  Helicon, 
sacred  to  the  Muses.  In  contrast  with  Homer,  who  sang 
the  mighty  deeds  of  princes  and  heroes,  he  depicted  the 
homely,  rustic  scenes  with  which  he  was  familiar.  His 
chief  poem  is  the  "Works  and  Days,"  consisting  mainly  of 
maxims  for  common  life.    Besides  this  is  the  "Theogony," 


86  THE  ANCIENT  WORLD. 

which  described  the  origin  of  the  world,  and  of  the  gods 
and  heroes;  but  it  is  beHeved  to  have  been  composed 
by  some  poet  of  his  school,  not  by  Hesiod  himself.  The 
poems  of  Homer  and  Hesiod  constituted  the  "Bible  of 
the  Greeks;"  for  these  first  put  into  permanent  form  the 
beliefs  concerning  the  gods. 

146.  Epic  poetry  naturally  flourished  most  while  the 
kings  ruled  in  Greece  (§93,  loi),  for  it  celebrated  the 
doings  of  gods  and  heroes,  from  whom  the  kings  sup- 
posed themselves  to  be  descended.  When  the  common 
people  gained  power,  lyric  and  dramatic  poetry  sprang  to 
life.  The  two  great  lyric  poets  of  Sparta  were  Tyrtae'us 
and  Alc'man;  but  neither  was  Spartan-born.  The  one  was 
Athenian,  and  the  other  a  Lydian  Slave.  The  story  goes, 
that  the  Spartans,  being  in  great  distress  during  the  second 
Messenian  war  (§109),  were  directed,  by  the  oracle,  to 
borrow  a  leader  from  Athens.  Not  daring  to  disobey 
the  priestess,  but  not  wishing  to  render  any  real  aid,  the 
Athenians  sent  the  poor,  lame  school-master,  Tyrtasus,  to 
be  the  general  of  their  rivals.  But  Apollo  was  not  to  be 
thwarted.  The  stirring  songs  of  Tyrtaeus^  did  more  than 
martial  feats  could  have  done  to  reinforce  the  courage  of 
the  Spartans;  they  immediately  began  to  gain  victories, 
and  the  lame  school-master  became  the  hero  of  the  war. 

147.  Simon'ides  lived  during  the  Persian  wars,  and  his 
songs  celebrate  the  heroes  who  fought  and  fell  at  Mara- 
thon, Thermopylae,  Salamis,  and  Platasa.  Pin'dar  was  a 
Theban  poet,  but  he  studied  at  Athens,  and  was  honored 
by  all  the  states  of  Greece.  His  triumphal  odes  in  honor 
of  victors  at  the  Games  (§102)  are  all  that  have  come 
down  to  us,  though  he  wrote  many  hymns,  dirges,  and 
processional  songs. 

148.  ^schylus  was  the  father  of  dramatic,  as  Homer 
was  of  epic  i)oetry.  The  first  tragedies  and  comedies  were 
recited  by  a  chorus  alone,  and  were  not  really  dramas,  as 


GREEK  POETS  AND  HISTORIANS,  87 

we  understand  the  term.  Both  had  their  origin  in  tlie 
songs  and  dances  wliich  were  part  of  the  festivals  of 
Dionysus;  and  these  festivals,  which  occurred  every  spring, 
in  Athens,  continued  to  be.  the  occasion  when  new  plays 
were  produced.  So  fond  were  the  Athenians  of  this  sort 
of  entertainment,  that  they  would  sit  all  day  long  in  the 
theater,  while  ten  or  twelve  plays  were  successively  per- 
formed. Their  theater  was  open  to  the  sky,  and,  from  the 
hill-side  on  which  it  was  situated,  coiunumded  a  magnifi- 
cent view   of  liiul  and  sea. 

149.  ^^schylus  is  distinguished  by  the  rugged  grandeur 
of  his  dramas;  Soph'ocles,  for  the  excpiisite  perfection  of 
his  art;  Eurip'ides,  for  his  tender  and  pathetic  pictures  of 
every-day  life.  These  three  are  confessedly  at  the  head 
of  the  Athenian  tragic  drama,  and  were  unsurpassed  by 
any  ancient  poets.  Aristoph'anes,  on  the  other  hand,  was 
the  master  of  comedy.  In  his  fun-producing  plays,  he 
fearlessly  attacked  the  greatest  Athenians  of  his  day  — the 
half  divine  heroes,  and  even  the  gods  themselves. 

150.  If  we  turn  to  prose  literature,  we  find  that  Greek 
historical  writing,  like  philosophy  and  poetry  (§100,  152), 
had  its  origin  among  the  lonians  of  Asia.  Hecatae'us,  of 
Miletus,  was  the  first  prose-writer  of  note.  He  traveled 
extensively,  and  wrote  books  on  history  and  geography. 
Herod'otus,  the  "Father  of  History,"  was  a  native  of 
Halicarnassus  (§101),  but  he  early  removed  to  Samos 
and  learned  the  Ionian  dialect.  He  traveled  in  many 
lands,  and  took  the  greatest  pains  to  ascertain  the  truth 
of  events  which  he  wished  to  narrate.  His  theme  was  the 
great  conflict  between  the  Persians  and  the  Greeks;  but 
he  found  occasion  for  many  interesting  accounts  of  other 
nations.  There  is  a  story  that  he  recited  the  whole  nine 
books  of  his  history  at  one  of  the  Olympic  Games,  and 
that  Thucyd'ides,  then  a  boy  of  thirteen  years,  hearing  him, 
was  moved  to  tears  of  admiration.     The  assembly  greeted 


8S  7'HE  ANCIENT  WORLD. 

the   great  work   with    shouts    of    deHghted    applause,    and 
conferred  on  each  book  the  name  of  one  of  the  Muses. 

151.  Thucydides  was  the  greatest  philosophic  historian 
among  the  Greeks;  some  competent  critics  declare  him 
to  be  the  greatest  of  any  age  or  nation.  He  wrote  the 
history  of  the  Peloponnesian  War  (§126)  to  its  twenty-first 
year;  and  his  account  of  its  causes  and  incidents  is  our 
best  authority  concerning  the  relations  of  Greek  states  and 
parties.  He  was  an  actor  in  the  events  which  he  describes. 
Xenophon  was  a  pupil  of  Socrates  (§134);  he  continued 
the  history  which  Thucydides  left  unfinished,  and  wrote  a 
narrative  of  the  ' '  Retreat  of  the  Ten  Thousand "  Greeks 
from  the  mad  expedition  of  Cyrus  the  Younger  (§58). 
He  had  accompanied  the  army  as  a  volunteer,  but,  when 
the  Greek  generals  had  been  slain,  he  was  chosen  one  of 
the  leaders  of  the  homeward  march.  His  story  presents 
a  lively  picture  of  the  countries  through  which  the  route 
lay.  Among  his  other  works  are  a  defense  of  Socrates, 
and  a  romance,  called  the  Cyropaedia,  concerning  Cyrus 
the  Great. 

152.  The  ''Seven  Wise  Men*  of  Greece"  flourished 
during  the  sixth  century  B.  C.  They  were  Solon  of 
Athens  (§112),  Tha'les  of  Miletus,  Pit'tacus  of  Mitylene, 
Perian'der  of  Corinth,  Cle'obu'lus  of  Lindus,  Chi'lo  of 
Sparta,  and  Bi'as  of  Priene.  ( Notice  that  four  of  the  seven 
lived  in  the  Asiatic  colonies,  §100.)  Thales^  was  also 
celebrated  as  the  founder  of  the  earliest  school  of  Greek 
philosophy,  called  the  Ionic.  His  most  illustrious  successor 
in  that  school  was  An'axag'oras,  the  teacher  of  Pericles, 
Socrates,  and  Euripides.  He,  first  of  the  Greeks,  believed 
in  a  creative  Mijid  as  the  author  and  ruler  of  the  universe: 
and  to  this  purer  faith  we  may  trace  the  elevation  of 
spirit  which  enabled  Pericles  to  bear  serenely  the  unjust 
reproaches  of  the  mob,  and  Socrates  to  look  calmly  into 
the    face    of   Death   (§134).      Anaxagoras,    like    his   great 


GREEK  PHILOSOPHERS.  89 

pupil  afterward,  was  tried  in  the  Athenian  courts  for  im- 
piety; but  his  Hfe  was  spared  on  the  condition  of  his 
de[)arture  from  Atliens. 

153.  I'he  second  school  of  C  J  reek  philosophy  took  its 
name  from  Elea,  in  Italy.  Xenoph'anes,  the  founder  of 
the  ElaUic  school,  censured  Homer  and  Hesiod  for  ascrib- 
ing   human    passions   and  weaknesses   to   the 

gods,    and    taught    that   the   Creator   is   one.  ^^° 

Still    more    important   was    the    Pythagorean   school,   which 
also  had  its  head(piarters  in  Italy.     Pythag'oras,  of  Samos, 
its  founder,  had  studied  not  only  with   earlier   Greek   plii- 
losophers,   but  with    Egyptian    priests  (^75), 
and,    perhaps,    with    Babylonian    and    Hindu  "  ^^°  ^°°* 

sages.  He  made  some  great  discoveries  in  music  and 
mathematics;  but  his  most  important  work  was  that  of  a 
religious  teacher.  He  believed  himself  inspired  of  Heaven 
to  make  known  a  purer  mode  of  life  than  was  prevalent 
among  the  Greeks.  The  last  forty  years  of  his  life  were 
spent  at  Crotona,  in  Italy,  where  he  became  the  head  of 
a  numerous  and  powerful  society.  Its  members  bound 
themselves,  by  strict  rules,  to  temperance  and  self-control, 
and  aspired  to  a  serene  life,  above  the  dominion  of  the 
passions.  Similar  clubs  were  formed  in  many  cities  of 
Italy;  and  the  Pythagoreans  numbered  many  thousands — 
among  them  some  of  the  best  and  noblest  men  in  Greece. 

154.  The  death  of  Socrates  has  been  mentioned  (§134). 
Though  one  of  the  wisest  of  the  Greeks,  he  did  not  teach 
any  system  of  philosophy,  but  aimed  rather  to  put  his 
disciples  in  the  way  of  finding  the  truth  for  themselves. 
He  was  unattractive  in  person,  humble  and  simple  in  life; 
he  received  no  payment  for  his  teachings,  but  taught  in 
the  street  or  the  market-place,  wherever  any  chose  to 
listen.  The  greatest  of  his  disciples  was  Pla'to,  the  founder 
of  the  Academic  School,  so  called  because  his  lectures  were 
given  in  the  grove  of  Academus,  near  a  gate   of  Athens. 


90 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD. 


We  are  indebted  to  Plato  for  most  of  what  we  know  of 
Socrates;  for  a  great  portion  of  his  writings  is  made  up  of 
dialogues,  in  which  Socrates  had  part.  His  own  philos- 
ophy is  the  highest  and  purest  of  which  the  ancient  world 
could  boast. 

155.  Aristode,^  the  tutor  of  Alexander  the  Great,  was 
the  founder  of  the  Peripatetic  School  of  philosophy.  His 
lectures,  at  Athens,  drew  about  him  a  throng  of  listeners 
from  all  the  Hellenic  cities  in  Europe  and  Asia;  and  he 
discoursed  to  them  while  walking  up  and  down  in  the 
shady  groves  which  surrounded  his  Lyceum.  Aristotle 
was  an  acute  and  patient  student  of  physical,  as  well  as 
mental,  science.  When  Alexander,  the  greatest  of  his 
pupils,  became  the  master  of  Asia,  he  caused  rare  col- 
lections of  animals  and  plants  to  be  sent  from  all  his 
provinces  to  his  old  teacher,  who  found  in  them  materials 
for  his  great  works  on  natural  history. 

The  mental  philosophy  of  Aristotle  continued  for  two 
thousand  years  predominant  in  Europe. 

156  In  the  arts  of  architecture  and  sculpture  the  pre- 
eminence of  the  Greeks  is  even  more  decided  than  in 
literature.  Greek  poetry  and  philosophy  have  been  rivaled, 
and,  in  some  respects,  surpassed;  but  the  greatest  modern 
sculptor  admits  the  impossibility  of  attaining  that  perfection 
of  repose  and  beauty  which  distinguishes  the  works  of 
Phid'ias  and  Praxit'eles.'^  The  stirring  scenes  of  the  Persian 
War  aroused  all  minds  to  their  highest  pitch  of  energy; 
and  the  seventy  years  of  Athenian  supremacy  were  the 
blossoming  time  of  Hellenic  genius.  The  necessity  of 
rebuilding  ruined  Athens  afforded  the  opportunity  which 
Themistocles,  Cimon,  and  Pericles  gladly  embraced,  to 
make  their  idolized  city  the  glory  of  all  lands. 

157.  Then  arose  the  Par'thenon,  or  temple  of  Athena, 
the  Virgin,  which,  for  exquisite  beauty  of  proportion,  has 
never  been  surpassed.     Then  was  cast  the  colossal  statue 


GREEK  ART,  91 


of  Athena  Prom'achos,  from  tlic  l)ronze  spoils  of  the 
Persians,  wliich  were  found  upon  the  field  of  Marathon. 
Its  glittering  helmet  and  spear  might  be  seen  fiir  off  at 
sea,  as  if  the  goddess  were  keeping  perpetual  guard  over 
the  city  which  bore  her  name.  This  was  the  work  of 
Phidias,  the  greatest  of  the  CI  reek  sculptors,  and,  therefore, 
the  greatest  whom  the  world  has  yet  produced. 

158.  Other  works  of  Phidias  were  the  gold  and  ivory 
statue  of  Athena,  which  stood  in  the  Parthenon ;  and,  most 
admirable  of  all,  the  colossal  statue  of  Zeus,  in  his  temple 
at  Olympia,  in  Elis.  Though  size  was  the  least  of  its 
merits,  we  may  say  that  the  figure,  though  sitting,  was 
nearly  sixty  feet  in  height.  The  throne  and  the  pedestal 
on  which  it  stood  were  adorned  with  elaborate  sculptures 
in  gold.  The  figure  itself  represented  perfect  majesty  in 
repose,  as  if  the  god  were  presiding  at  the  games  which 
were  held  in  his  honor. 

159.  As  Ionia  had  her  schools  of  poetry  and  philosophy 
(§152),  so  she  had  her  peculiar  order  of  architecture; 
perhaps  the  most  refined  and  graceful  of  the  three  Greek 
orders — equally  removed  from  the  simple  grandeur  of  the 
DoriCj  and  the  exuberant  ornament  of  the  Corinthian.  The 
most  noted  example  of  the  Ionic  order  was  the  temple  of 
Ar'temis,  at  Ephesus;  of  the  Doric,  the  Parthenon,  at 
Athens;  of  the  Corinthian,  the  temple  of  the  Olympian 
Zeus,  begun  by  Pisistratus  and  his  sons,  at  Athens,  but 
completed  650  years  after  its  foundation  by  a  Roman 
emperor. 

The  Iliad  and  Odyssey  of  Homer  have  been  best  translated  by 
our  countryman  W.  C.  Bryant ;  the  existing  Tragedies  of  i-Eschylus 
and  Sophocles,  by  Prof.  Plumptre ;  Herodotus,  by  Prof.  Rawlinson. 
Translations  of  Thucydides  and  Xenophon  are  found  in  all  large 
libraries.  Read  accounts  of  the  Greek  philosophers  in  Grote,  Chapters 
xvi,  xxxvii,  Ixviii,  and  in  K.  O.  Muller's  History  of  the  Literature 
of  Greece.  Find  descriptions  of  Greek  Orders  of  Architecture  in 
Fergusson's  "Handbook,"  Book  VI,  Chapter  ii. 


92  THE  ANCIENT   WORLD. 


NOTES. 

1.  Of  the  17  or  19  cities  that  are  named  by  various  ancient  writers 
as  birthplaces  of  Homer,  all  but  Smyrna  and  Chios  are  rejected  by  the 
best  critics,  and  of  these  Smyrna  has  generally  the  choice.  Nothing  is 
known  of  Homer's  life;  the  Greeks  universally  considered  him  as  their 
greatest  poet ;  it  was  left  for  modern  critics  to  question  his  existence,  or, 
at  least,  his  authorship  of  the  works  which  bear  his  name.  In  1795, 
Prof.  F.  A.  Wolf,  of  Halle,  in  Germany,  published  his  startling  theorj'- 
that  the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey  were  never  complete  poems,  but  collec- 
tions, first  made  in  the  time  of  Pisistratus  (^13),  of  the  songs  of  various 
minstrels,  who  had  lived  at  different  times  during  the  preceding  500 
years.  After  long  contention,  the  best  opinion  seems  to  be  that  the 
two  poems,  as  they  have  come  down  to  us,  are  the  work  of  one  great 
poet,  who  may  have  used  the  rude  ballads  of  earlier  bards,  but  cer- 
tainly createJ  them  anew,  and  gave  them  unity  by  his  own  powerful 
genius. 

A  party  of  ancient  critics  supposed  the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey  to  be 
the  work  of  two  different  authors,  but  Longinus,  the  rhetorician,  a 
courtier  of  Queen  Zenobia  (§  262,  note),  accounted  for  the  contrasts  found 
in  the  two  poems  by  affirming  that  Homer  wrote  the  Iliad  in  the  vigor 
of  youth,  and  the  Odyssey  in  his  old  age.  "  In  the  Iliad,  the  men  are 
better  than  the  gods;  in  the  Odyssey,  it  is  the  reverse."  In  the  Odyssey, 
protection  and  punishment  are  both  bestowed  upon  mortals  for  just 
cause;  in  the  Iliad,  from  mere  caprice.  Zeus,  in  the  latter,  sends  a  dream 
to  deceive  Agamemnon;  Athena  prompts  Pandarus  to  treachery;  Paris, 
who  has  vilely  abused  the  hospitality  of  Menelaus,  goes  uncondemned; 
while,  in  the  Odyssey,  the  gods  are  the  avengers  of  wrong.  It  may  be 
that  Homer,  in  his  earlier  poem,  adhered  to  the  traditions  of  a  ruder 
stage  of  society,  while,  in  the  latter,  he  expressed  his  own  higher  ideas 
concerning  the  gods. 

2.  Hesiod  had  a  brother  Perses,  who,  instead  of  earning  a  support 
by  honorable  toil,  spent  his  time  in  idleness  or  in  hanging  about  the 
courts,  where  he  contrived  to  obtain  an  award  of  more  than  his  just 
share  of  his  father's  property.  The  poet,  who  was  frugal  and  industri- 
ous, seems  to  have  composed  the  "  Works  and  Days,"  either  with 
the  hope  of  reclaiming  Perses  from  his  evil  habits,  or  with  the  purpose 
of  punishing  him  by  holding  him  up  to  reproof.  Critics  have  said  that 
the  poem  might  have  been  named  ."  Farming  Operations,"  or  "  Lucky 
and  Unlucky  Days,"  or  "A  Letter  of  Remonstrance  and  Advice  to  a 
Brother."  It  is  in  three  parts;  the  first  cites  many  popular  stories 
and  proverbs  to  show  how  much  better  is  honest  labor  than  laziness 
and  extravagance;  the  second  gives  practical  rules  for  farming;  and 
the  third  is  a  religious  calendar,  pointing  out  the  days  which  are 
favorable  or  unlucky  for  plowing,  sowing,  etc.  Among  his  homely  di- 
rections to  the  farmer,  is  the  following  for  the  winter  months:  "Now 
is  the  time  to  go  warm-clad,  thick- shod,  and  with  a  waterproof  cape 
over  the  shoulders,  and  a  fur  cap,  lined  with  felt,  about  the  head  and 
ears."  He  adds  that  in  cold  and  wet  weather  workmen  must  have  more 
food,  but  cattle  less.  Sixty  days  after  the  winter-solstice,  vine-dressing 
must  begin;  but  when  the  snail  quits  the  earth  and  climbs  the  trees, 
this  work  gives  place  to  early  harvesting.  The  advantages  of  early 
rising,  especially  at  this  busy  time,  are  strongly  urged. 

The  poem  is  full  of  curious  pictures  of  primitive  Greek  life  on  a 
farm,  and  tells  us,  in  fact,  nearly  all  we  know  of  the  manners  of  the 
common  people  in  those  remote  tinies. 

The  Theogony  opens  thus:  "In  the  beginning  was  Chaos,  next  the 
Earth,  with  its  broad  bosom,  the  immovable  foundation  of  all  beings, 
the  vast  Tartarus  in  the  depth  of  its  abyss,  and  Love,  the  most  beauti- 
ful of  all  the  immortal  gods." 

Chaos  produced  Erebus  and  Night;  Night  became  mother  of  Ether  and 
Day.  Children  of  Heaven  and  Earth  were  Ocean  and  the  Titans,  the 
Cyclopes,  and  the  hundred-handed  giants.  Uranus  was  the  first  ruler  of 
creation,  but  he  was  dethroned  by  his  son  Kronos.  The  latter  had  a 
habit  of  devouring  his  own  children,  but  Zeus,  his  youngest  born,  hav- 
ing been  rescued  by  a  trick,  grew  up  to  make  war  upon  his  father. 
The  Titans  fought  on  the  side  of  Kronos,  while  with  Zeus  were  the  Cy- 


NOTES.  93 


elopes  and  the  giants  whom  he  had  bcMondcd.  At  last  tho  TItutis 
were  ovorwhehneil  by  a  storm  of  lieavy  stones,  luid  were  Imprisoned 
as  far  uiidor  the  earth  as  eartli  Is  from  heaven,  witli  Dny  and  Night 
piiein^  as  st^ntinels  before  tlio  brazen  gates  of  their  dungeon. 

3.  "The  martial  appeals  ol  Tyrta'us  arc  enllvene«l  by  illustrations 
nf  tlie  solilitTs'  <lutios  and  of  tin-  s<'t'nes  aufl  adventures  of  the  battle- 
Held.  Amonu  the  most  uraphie  of  bis  pictures  is  the  description  of  tho 
warrior  a«lvaneingto  the  encounter  'with  compressed  lii)s  and  firm  step, 
brandisljing  liis  spear  in  his  liand,  while  his  plume  nods  terribly  from 
»\is   helmet.'     Tlie  exeeHence  of  a  glorious  death   is  placed  in  spirited 

)ntra.st  with   the  wretchedness  of  life  purchased  by   loss  of  honor." 

4.  The  S4iyings  of  the  Seven  Wise  Men  were  Inscribed  on  bronze  tab- 
Itts  in  the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Delphi.  The  following  are  among  tho 
most  celebrated: 

Solon,  being  asked  bow  he  would  banish  injustice  from  a  republic, 
replied,  "By  nuiking  all  men  feel  the  Injustice  done  to  any." 

IMttaeus  declared  that  "the  greatest  blessing  a  man  can  enjoy  Is 
the  power  of  doing  good."  Periander,  that  "a  wise  governor  would  pre- 
vent rather  than  punish  crime." 

("leol)ulus,  that  "a  man  should  never  leave  his  dwelling  without 
considering  well  what  he  was  about  to  do,  nor  ret^nter  it  without  re- 
Ilecting  on  what  he  had  done." 

C'hilo,  when  asked  what  were  the  three  most  difficult  things  in  a 
man's  life,  replietl,  "To  keep  a  secret,  to  forgive  injuries,  and  to  nuike  a 
profitable  use  of  leisure  time."  His  most  celebrated  maxim  wa.s,  "Noth- 
ing in  excess."  Hias  pronounced  the  most  unfortunate  of  men  to  be  ho 
who  knows  not  how  to  bear  misfortune. 

5.  "  Thales  was  born  at  Miletus  about  640  B.  C.  According  to  Herod- 
otus, he  predicted  the  eclipse  of  the  sun  which  occurred  during  a  bat- 
tle l>etween  Cyaxares  the  Mede,  and  Alyattes,  king  of  Lvdia,  about  (i09 
B.  C.  [j?  16],  He  considered  water  to  be  the  origin  or  principle  of  all  things, 
!ixe<i  the  length  of  the  year  at  365  days,  and  attribute<l  the  attractive 
power  of  the  magnet  to  a  soul  or  life  by  which  it  is  animated." 

6.  Aristotle,  born  at  Stagira,  in  Thrace,  B.  C.  384,  has  had  probably  a 
wider  and  more  lasting  intluence  in  the  progress  of  human  intelligence 
than  anv  other  man  that  ever  lived.  His  father,  Nicomachus,  was  a 
physician  at  the  Macedonian  court,  and  the  author  of  some  medical 
and  scientific  works.  At  the  age  of  seventeen,  Aristotle  went  to  Athens, 
where  he  remained  twenty  years  and  became  tlie  most  successful  pupil 
in  the  school  of  Plato.  As  his  own  opinions  became  more  clearly  de- 
tlnetl,  he  was  unable  to  accept  some  of  Plato's  doctrines,  but  he  never 
lost  his  affection  and  reverence  for  his  teacher;  perhaps  thus  originating 
tlie  ancient  proverb,  "Plato  is  dear, but  Truth  is  dearer." 

When  Alexander  came  to  the  throne  of  Macedon.  Aristotle  removed 
to  Athens  and  established  a  school,  which  was  called  the  Lyceum,  be- 
cause it  was  near  the  temple  of  Apollo  I.ycius.  His  active  and  restless 
temperament  caused  him  to  walk  up  and  down  while  delivering  his 
lectures;  hence  the  name  Peripatetic.  After  Alexander's  death,  the 
Athenians  brought  charges  of  impiety  against  Aristotle,  who  departed 
from  their  city  without  awaiting  his  trial,  "that  the  Athenians  might 
not  incur  the  guilt  of  twice  sinning  against  philo.sophy  "  (See  g  134).  He 
died  at  Chalcis,  in  Eubcea,  at  the  age  of  sixty-two. 

7.  Phidias  was  a  son  of  Charmides,  an  Athenian,  and  is  supposed  to 
have  been  born  about  the  lime  of  the  battle  of  Marathon,  though  the 
date  is  uncertain.  He  was  the  founder  of  the  ('las.sical  School  of  Greek 
Sculpture,  which  replaced  the  rudeness  and  stiffness  of  the  older  .statues 
with  forms  of  ideal  beauty  and  grandeur.  The  school  of  Praxiteles, 
which  followed  that  of  Phidia-s,  hsul  less  of  majesty,  but  even  more  of 
beauty  and  grace. 

Examples  of  tlie  Early  or  Archaic  School  may  be  seen  in  the  Cesnola 
Collection  of  Cyprian  Antiquities  in  the  Metropolitan  Mu.seum  of  New 
York;  of  the  School  of  Phidias,  in  the  P^lgin  Marbles  of  the  British 
Museum,  and  the  Venus  of  Melos,  of  which  there  are  many  copies  in 
this  country:  of  the  later  school,  in  the  "Marble  Faun"  which  Haw- 
thorne has  ae.scribed,  the  group  of  Niobe  and  her  children,  and  per- 
haps the  Venus  de'  Medici. 


PERIOD   IV. — Hellenic    Kingdoms   in   Europe 

Africa. 


Asia,   and 


CHAPTER   X. 


ALEXANDER    THE    GREAT. 


LEXANDER  III.  of  Macedon/  though 
only  twenty  years  old  when  he  became 
king,  had  already  proved  his  extraor- 
dinary genius  for  war  and  government. 
A  new  congress  at  Corinth  conferred 
upon  him  the  same  command  which  his 
father  had  held  (§  140),  and  in  the 
spring  of  334  B.  C.  he  crossed  the  Hel- 
lespont with  a  Greek  army  of  35,000 
men.  As  before,  the  perfect  training  of 
the  Greeks  more  than  matched  the  im- 
mense numbers  of  the  Persians  (§§  115, 
118).  At  the  passage  of  the  Granicus, 
Alexander  defeated  a  superior  force 
which  opposed  him; -then,  turning  southward,  he  quickly 
made  himself  master  of  Asia  Minor.  Darius  III,  with  half 
a  million  men,  was  defeated  at  Issus,  and  fled,  leaving  his 
mother,  wife,  and  children  in  the  hands  of  the  conqueror. 

161.    Alexander  then   purposely  left  him   time  to  collect 

the  whole  force  of  his  empire  for  a  decisive  combat,  while 

he    himself    turned    aside    to    receive    the    submission    of 

Phoenicia,    Palestine,    and    Egypt,    and    thus    prevent    any 

(94) 


Demosthenes. 


BATTLE   OF  ARBELA.  95 


attack  by  sea  upon  Macedonia  or  Greece.  Egypt  and 
Palestine  gladly  threw  off  the  Persian  yoke;  and  —  though 
Tyre  withstood  a  long  and  obstinate  siege  —  in  less  than 
two  years,  all  the  Mediterranean  coast,  as  far  as  Libya, 
was  added  to  the  dominion  of  Alexander.  Near  the  western 
mouth  of  the  Nile  he  built  a  new  city,  called  from  his 
own  name  Alexandria,*  which  has  ever  since  been  an  im- 
l)ortant  mart  of  exchange  between  tlu>  I'ast  and  the  West. 

162.  At  length  he  marched  eastward  for  the  grand 
battle  which  was  to  decide  the  fate  of  western  Asia. 
Darius  had  mustered  and  drilled  more  than  a  million  of 
men,  and  had  carefully  chosen  a  field,  near  Arbela,  which 
gave  him  all  the  advantage  of  this  immense  number.  The 
ground  was  leveled  and  hardened,  so  that  his 
scythe-armed  chariots  might  operate  with  full  "'^  ' 
effect.  He  himself  was  present  in  the  midst  of  his  men, 
and  his  example  increased  their  bravery.  Nevertheless, 
Alexander  and  his  Macedonian  phalanx  were  again  victo- 
rious, and  Darius  became  a  fugitive  and  a  captive  (g^  60, 
61).  The  three  Persian  capitals,  Susa,  Persepolis,  and 
Babylon,  soon  submitted  to  the  conqueror. 

163.  The  young  Greek  general  was  now  an  Oriental 
monarch.  His  court,  composed  equally  of  Asiatics  and 
Europeans,  was  as  splendidly  ceremonious  as  that  of  Xerxes 
himself.  He  put  on  all  the  haughty  airs  of  a  Persian 
king.  His  old  comrades  were  required  to  prostrate  them- 
selves on  their  faces  in  approaching  his  throne;  and  some 
of  his  best  friends  were  put  to  death  for  daring  to  express 
their  opinion  of  these  new  pretensions.  But  if  his  sudden 
successes  were  fatal  to  Alexander's  good  sense,  they  did  not 
destroy  his  energy  and  talents.  During  the  remainder  of 
his  short  life,  he  reduced  all  the  remaining  provinces  of 
the  Persian  empire  to  his  sway.     (See  §§48,  51.). 

164.  He  was  no  brutal  conqueror,  like  those  Asiatic 
cliiefs  (p.  12,  note)  whose  tracks  were  marked  by  the  ashes 


96  THE   ANCIENT  WORLD. 

of  burnt  cities  and  by  pyramids  of  human  heads.  Wher- 
ever his  armies  advanced,  rivers  were  cleared  for  naviga- 
tion; roads  were  made  through  tangled  forests;  new  cities 
sprang  up;  trade  revived,  or  was  led  into  new  channels; 
and  western  thrift  took  the  place  of  oriental  indolence 
and  stagnation.  Learned  men  accompanied  his  fleets  and 
armies;  and  their  reports  afford  our  first  definite  knowledge 
of  India. 

165.  But  while  Asia  gained,  Europe  lost  in  almost  equal 
measure.  The  Greeks,  like  the  Persians  before  them 
(§  63),  lost  their  free  spirit,  and  learned  the  slavish  habits 
of  courtiers.  Art  and  literature  declined  as  the  spirit  of 
the  people  became  enslaved. 

The  grand  result  of  Alexander's  short  and  brilliant  career 
was  to  diffuse  Greek  civilization  from  the  Adriatic  to  the 
borders  of  India,  and  from  the  Crimea  to  the  cataracts  of 
the  Nile.  By  giving  to  all  this  region  one  common  lan- 
guage for  government  and  literature,  Alexander's  con- 
quests prepared  the  way  for  the  more  rapid  progress  of 
Christianity. 

166.  Having  extended  his  empire  eastward  beyond  the 
Indus,  Alexander  was  planning  the  conquest  of  Italy, 
Carthage,  and  all  the  western  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean, 
His  schemes  were,  however,  broken  off  by  his  sudden 
death  from  a  fever,  at  Babylon.  He  was  32  years  of  age, 
and  had  reigned  12  years  and  8  months. 

Trace,  on  Map  i,  Alexander's  progress  from  the  borders  of  the 
yEgean  Sea  to  Arbela.  Point  out  the  countries  and  cities  which  he 
conquered. 

Read  the  story  of  Alexander  in  Felton's  Smith's  Greece,  Ch. 
XLIV.,  and  in  Plutarch's  Lives  ;  in  Thirlwall's  History  of  Greece, 
and  in  Williams's  Life  and  Actions  of  Alexander  the  Great. 


MAP  No.  IV. 


IMPORTANT  GREEK   COLONIES. 


In  Spain. 
Saguntum,  and  5  other  towns 

In  France. 

Massilia  (Marseilles) 

In  Italy. 

Cumae 

Sybaris,  and  25  subject  cities 

Crotona 

Tarentum 

Locri  Epizephyrii 

Rhegium 

Siris,  or  Heraclea 

Metapontum 

In  Sicily. 

Naxos 

Syracuse 

Catana 

Leontini 

Gela 

Zancle,  or  Messene 

Himera 

Hybla 

Selinus 

Camarina 

Agrigentum 


In  Africa. 

Naucratis,  in  Egypt 

Cyrene 

Barca 

Hesperides 

On  Ionian  Islands  and 
Coasts. 
Corcyra 
Ambracia 
Anactorium 
Leucas 
Apollonia 
Epidamnus 

In  Thrace. 
Methone 
Potidaea 
Olynthus 
Amphipolis 
Sestus 
Byzantium 

On  the  Black  Sea. 
Istria 
Apollonia 
Odessus 
Mesambria 
Tomi 
Cherson 


The  Greek  cities  of  Asia  Minor  were  wealthiest  and  most  im- 
portant of  all ;  but  they  are  to  be  considered  as  independent 
states,  rather  than  as  colonies. 


r^^ 


^ 


34 


GREECE 

andlier 

COLONIES 

9         25        SO  1 

lliles. 

ifatural  Scale  1: 7,900,000. 


GREEK  SAGES  AND  ARTISTS. 


Philos 

ophers. 

Thales            B. 

C.  639-546. 

Anaximander 

610-547. 

Pythagoras 

570-499. 

Anaximenes 

548-484. 

Xenophanes 

540-500. 

Parmenides 

520-460. 

Anaxagoras 

500-428. 

Zeno 

488-448. 

Socrates 

469-399. 

Plato 

430-347. 

Xenocrates 

396-314. 

Aristotle 

384-322. 

Poets. 

Homer 

850-776. 

Hesiod 

790-640. 

Archilochus 

714-676. 

Terpander 

700-650. 

Ale  man 

671-631. 

Tyrtaeus 

683-657. 

Alcaeus 

590. 

Stesichorus 

632-552. 

Anacreon 

563-478. 

Simonides 

556-467. 

.'Eschylus 

525-456. 

Pindar. 

522-442. 

Sophocles 

495-406. 

Euripides        B. 

C.  480-406. 

Aristophanes 

444-380. 

Poetesses. 

Sappho 

611-573. 

Corinna 

500. 

Myrtis 

500. 

Sculptors, 

Ageladas 

500-450 

Phidias 

49CH-432. 

Polyclitus 

452-412. 

Myron 

480-431. 

Alcamenes 

444-400. 

Agoracritus 

440-425. 

Scopas 

395-350. 

Praxiteles 

364-350- 

Apollodorus 

320. 

Painters. 

Polygnotus 

463-426. 

Zeuxis 

424-400. 

Apollodorus 

408. 

Parrhasius 

400-344. 

Pamphilus 

390-350. 

Eupompus 

375- 

Apelles 

352-306. 

Protogenes 

332-300. 

Asclepiodorus 

330. 

Melanthius 

330. 

Note. — Single  dates  fall  within  the  time  of  the  greatest  fame  or  power  of  tht 
person  named.  Where  two  dates  are  given  they  usually  include  the  period  ol 
greatest  activity,  in  a  few  instances  the  whole  life,  of  author  or  artist.  The  mosi 
ancient  names,  those  of  Homer  and  Hesiod,  are  involved  in  the  greatest  doubt; 
the  opinions,  even  of  ancient  writers,  differing  by  no  less  than  500  years  as  to 
the  time  of  their  birth.  The  dates  in  the  table  are  those  of  Smith's  Dictionary 
of  Biography. 


NOTES.  97 


NOTES. 

1.  Of  tlie  four  grefttest  military  leiulors  that  the  world  ha«  known, 
Alexander  of  Mncedon  wjvs  earliest  iti  time;  and,  If  wo  compare  the 
sliortness  of  Ills  ean»er  with  the  duration  of  Its  results,  we  ean  hanlly 
ittuse  to  call  him  the  m«>st  extraordinary  «'haraeter  in  lilstory.  Throutth 
his  mother,  Olymplas,  he  was  descended  from  the  klnns  of  Kplrus.  who 
traced  their  origin  to  Achilles  (jilU'i.  His  ruling  passion  l!i  (*hlldhood 
was  a  thh-st  tor  warllk<>  achievements;  he  slept  with  his  sword  and  u 
copy  of  the  llhul  under  his  pillow;  and  his  waking  hours  were  spent 
in  I'nanly  exeivlses,  in  which  he  excelled  all  the  youth  of  his  time.  A 
iiiaKnitieent  war-stetnl,  named  Hucephalus.  was  once  hrought  to  Philip. 
l»ut  proved  so  fierce  an«i  fiery  that  neither  grooms  nor  nohles  couul 
mount  him.  Alexander  hegge<l  leave  to  try,  an«l  hrou^ht  hitn  under 
perfect  control.  The  kin^  wept  for  joy  at  tills  i)r(M)f  of  his  son's  ({enUm 
for  command,  and  declared  that  Alexan(ier  must  seek  auiother  kingdom, 
for  .Macedonia  was  too  small  to  give  exercise  to  his  powers. 

-Vt  the  age  of  thirteen,  Alexander  heeame  for  three  years  the  nupil 
of  Aristotle,  "the  greatest  intellect  of  that,  or  perhaiw  of  any  Jige"  (see 
note  t{,  Ch.  IX).  Under  his  Intluence.  "the  boy  awoke  to  the  knowle<lge 
that  a  wonderful  worhl  lay  before  him,  of  which  he  luul  seen  little,  and 
threw  himself,  it  is  said,  into  the  task  of  gathering,  at  any  cost,  a  col- 
lection for  the  study  of  natural  history.  While  his  mind  was  thus  urged 
in  one  direction,  he  listened  to  stories  which  told  him  of  the  great  quar- 
rel still  to  be  fought  out  between  the  East  and  the  West,  and  learnt  to 
look  upon  himself  as  the  champion  of  Hellas  against  the  barbarian 
desiH)t  of  Susa."  At  si.xteen,  Alexander  acted  as  regent  of  the  kingdom 
during  his  father's  absence,  and  seized  every  opportunity  to  increase 
his  knowledge  by  conversations  with  foreign  embasstvdors.  At  eighteen, 
he  contributed  largely  to  IMiilip's  victory  at  Clueronea  (g  HO). 

Several  Greek  suites  hailed  hisaccessio.i  to  tiie  throne  as  a  signal  of 
their  release  from  the  Macedonian  yoke.  But  the  young  king  soon 
showed  them  that  in  energy  and  ability  he  was  at  least  not  inferior  to 
his  father.  A  second  revolt  in  Thebes  was  avenged  by  the  storm  and 
capture  of  the  city,  and  the  destruction  of  all  its  nouses,  excepting  that 
of  Pindar,  the  poet  (^  147).  All  the  Thebans  were  sold  into  slavery,  save 
the  descendants  of  Pindar  and  the  opponents  of  the  revolt.  This  terri- 
ble act  of  severity  deterred  other  states  from  following  the  example;  and 
Alexander  took  his  place  without  opposition  at  the  nead  of  the  Grecian 
forces. 

After  the  battle  of  Lssus,  the  mother,  the  wife,  and  two  daughters  of 
the  Persian  king  were  left  in  the  hands  of  the  conqueror,  but  they  were 
treated  with  the  utmost  generosity.  Most  of  the  maritime  cities  wel- 
comed Alexander  as  a  deliverer  from  the  hated  rule  of  the  Persians. 
Tyre  and  Gaza  were  the  only  exceptions,  and  they  were  punished  for 
tlieir  resistance  by  frightful  ma.ssacres. 

His  unbroken  series  of  successes  began  to  have  an  evil  effect  in  the 
once  manly  and  sincere  character  of  Alexander,  While  in  Egypt,  he 
made  a  visit  to  the  temple  of  Amun  (g75),  in  the  Libyan  oasis,  and 
caused  himself  to  be  recognized  by  the  too-obedient  priesthood  as  a  son 
of  tlie  god.  After  his  conquests  in  Asia,  he  ordered  the  death  of  Par- 
menion  and  his  son  Philotas,  only  because  the  latter  had  claimed  too 
large  a  share  of  credit  for  his  father  and  himself  in  the  victories  of  the 
Greeks.  Enraged  by  the  reproof  of  his  faithful  friend  Clitus  for  his 
drunken  boastmg,  he  murdered  Clitus  with  his  own  hand;  but  we  must 
add,  to  his  credit,  tlmt.  as  soon  as  he  was  sober,  he  declared  himself 
unflt  to  live,  and  would  neither  eat  nor  drink  for  three  days. 

Having  subdued  the  whole  realm  of  Darius,  Alexander  advanced 
into  India,  a  land  of  wonders,  of  which  scarcely  even  the  name  had 
reached  the  Greeks.  The  naturalists  who  accompanied  his  expedition 
noted  with  curiosity  the  "  wool-bearlngtrees"  (cotton  plants)  and  other 
strange  productions  of  the  country.  The  soldiers,  however,  refused  to 
go  farther  than  the  Hyphiusis  (Sutlej),  and,  building  a  fleet  on  another 
branch  of  the  Indus,  he  descended  the  great  river  to  the  sea.  Leaving 
his  admiral,  Nearchus,  to  take  the  ships  through  the  Persian  (iulf  to 
the  Tigris,  he  proceeded  with  his  army  across  the  Gedroslan  desert  to 
Susji. 

The  hardships  of  the  march  were  terrible,  and  great  numbers  per- 
Hist.— 7. 


98 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD. 


ished  of  hunger  and  thirst.  Resting  at  Susa,  the  conqueror  had  time  to 
mature  his  plans  for  making  one  great  empire  of  tlie  lands  he  had  sub- 
dued. He  married  a  daughter  of  Darius,  and  gave  liberal  gifts  to  nearly 
ten  thousand  of  his  veteran  troopers,  who  had  also  taken  Asiatic  wives. 
He  received  into  his  army  20,000  Persian  soldiers,  whom  he  caused  to  be 
drilled  in  Macedonian  tactics;  and  placed  over  several  provinces  Persian 
officers  whom  he  could  trust.  Some  of  his  veterans  mutinied  at  this 
elevation  of  the  conquered  people  to  equal  place  with  themselves;  but 
Alexander  soothed  their  discontent  with  great  skill,  and  then  sent  them 
home. 

He  was  planning  to  combine  all  the  then-known  countries  into  a 
great  empire,  extending  from  the  Indus  to  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  with 
Babylon  as  its  capital.  The  distribution  of  waters  over  the  great  Baby- 
lonian plain  enlisted  his  personal  attention.  He  returned  from  a  visit 
to  the  canals,  to  give  a  great  banquet  to  Nearchus  and  the  other  officers 
of  the  tleet,  who  were  about  to  ,saii  for  Arabia.  In  the  midst  of  their 
preparations  the  king  was  attacked  by  a  fever,  which,  in  eleven  days, 
ended  his  life. 

2.  The  quick  eye  of  Alexander  discerned  the  extraordinary  advan- 
tages of  the  site  between  Lake  Mareotis  on  the  south,  and  the  Mediter- 
ranean on  the  north.  Summoning  Dinocrates  the  architect — who  had 
won  great  fame  by  rebuilding  the  temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus— he  com- 
manded him  to  build  here  a  city  that  should  outrival  Tyre.  Within  a 
few  years  the  densely  peopled  Alexandria  was  the  greatest  commercial 
city  in  the  world.  The  island  of  Pharos,  crowned  by  its  light-house- 
tower,  400  feet  in  height,  was  connected  with  the  mainland  by  a  mole 
protected  by  forts.  The  island  is  now  a  peninsula,  and  the  artificial 
causeway  has  grown,  by  accumulations  of  earth  and  sand,  into  a  broad 
isthmus,  on  which  a  great  portion  of  the  modern  city  stands. 

The  ancient  city  consisted  of  three  parts:  the  Jewish  quarter  in  the 
north-east;  Rhacotu,  the  Egyptian  quarter,  in  the  west,  and  Brucheum, 
the  royal  or  Greek  quarter,  covering  the  remainder. 

Tlie  Greek  quarter  surpassed  all  the  rest  in  magnificence,  for  it  con- 
tained the  palaces  of  the  Ptolemies  (g  172),  the  Mausoleum  of  Alexander, 
and  many  other  splendid  buildings.  But  the  city's  best  title  to  fame 
consisted  in  the  Museum,  a  sort  of  university  which  drew  together  the 
most  brilliant  company  of  learned  and  accomplished  men  that  were 
ever  assembled  in  one  place.  Demetrius  Phalereus,  "  tlie  last  of  Attic 
orators,"  is  said  to  have  Inspired  the  first  of  the  Ptolemies  with  the 
idea  of  the  great  Alexandrian  Library,  the  first  institution  of  its  kind 
in  the  world  (g  172).  Part  of  this  collection  was  kept  in  the  temple  of 
Serapis,  on  the  inland  rising  ground  of  the  Egyptian  quarter;  the  rest 
was  connected  with  the  palace  and  museuin. 

Among  the  great  men  of  Alexandria  were  Euclid,  the  Geometer; 
Hipparchus,  the  "father  of  Astronomy;  "  Eratosthenes,  the  first  of  Ge- 
ographers; Callimachus,  the  chief  Librarian,  and  the  most  celebrated 
grammarian,  critic,  and  poet  of  his  time;  Apelles  and  Antiphilus,  the 
painters.  With  all  these  and  many  more  the  king  lived  on  terms  of 
intimacy,  delighting  in  their  conversation  and  liberallj^  forwarding  their 
studies.  At  his  request,  Manetho,  an  Egyptian  priest,  wrote  in  Greek 
an  account  of  the  doctrines,  wisdom,  history,  and  chronology  of  his 
country,  "based  upon  the  ancient  works  of  the  Egyptians  themselves, 
and  more  especially  upon  their  sacred  books." 

"Eratosthenes  had  heard  that  in  Syene,  in  Upper  p]gypt,  deep  wells 
were  enlightened  to  the  bottom  on  the  day  of  the  summer  solstice,  and 
that  vertical  objects  cast  no  shadows."  He  had  already  "calculated  the 
obliquity  of  the  ecliptic  closely  enough  to  serve  for  a  thousand  yeai-s 
after."  He  now  perceived  that  Syene  must  be  under  the  ecliptic,  and, 
by  comparing  its  latitude  with  that  of  Alexandria,  625  miles  distant, 
was  able  to  calculate  the  circumference  of  the  earth.  His  result  was 
too  large— 31,500  miles— owing  to  an.error  in  his  first  measurement;  but 
his  method  was  right,  and  he  had  taken  the  first  great  step  towards  a 
knowledge  of  mathematical  geography.  "The  wise  men  of  Ptolemy's 
court  well  understood  the  spherical  form  of  the  earth ;  their  knowledge- 
being  mainly  theoretical— was  lost  during  the  ages  of  ignorance  which 
followed;  and  it  was  left  for  Columbus  and  his  successors  to  prove  its 
correctness  by  actual  experiment." 


CHAPTER   XT. 


SUCCESSORS    OF    ALKXANOKR. 


LEXANDER'S  great  empire  fell 
to  pieces  shortly  after  his  death, 
and  his  principal  officers  fought 
over  the  division  of  the  si)oils. 
After  twenty-two  years  of  fierce 
'^  contention,  a  battle  at  Ipsus  in 
Phrygia,  B.  C.  301,  finally  gave 
Syria  and  the  East  to  Seleu'cus; 
Egypt  to  Ptol'emy;  Thrace,  with 
part  of  Asia  Minor,  to  Lysim'- 
achus;  Macedonia  and  Greece 
to  Cassan'der. 

168.    The    Seleucidse.— The 
kingdom  of  Seleucus*  was  by  far 
the  greatest  and  richest  of  these 
A  Greek  Lady.  divisions,  and  Under  his  energetic 

reign  it  rapidly  became  Helkfiized.  His  capital,  Antioch^ 
on  the  Orontes,  continued  for  a  thousand  years  to  be  one 
of  the  most  beautiful  and  flourishing  cities  in  the  world. 
The  last  survivors  of  those  who  had  marched  and  fought 
under  Alexander  were  Seleucus  and  Lysimachus;  and  these 
two  made  war  in  their  old  age  against  each  other.  Lysim- 
achus was  slain,  and  his  dominions  in  Asia  Minor  were 
added  to  the  kingdom  of  Seleucus;  but  the  latter  was  soon 
afterward  murdered  in  Europe,  where  he  v/as  still  pushing 
his  conquests. 

169.  The  successors  of  Seleucus  were  inferior  to  him  in 
character;  and  two  independent  kingdoms,  Parthia  and 
Bactria,   sprang   up   in   the   north-eastern    i)art  of  their  do- 

(99) 


lOO  THE  ANCIENT  WORLD. 

minion.  (See  map  i.)  The  Bactrians  were  of  the  Aryan 
race  (§6),  and  their  new  kingdom  was  thoroughly  Greek 
in  spirit;  the  Parthians,  on  the  contrary,  were  nearly  re- 
lated to  the  barbarous  Scythians;  and  their  movement  for 
independence  was  a  revolt  against  Hellenic  ideas. 

170.  Anti'ochus  III,^  the  fifth  of  the  Seleucidae,  had 
many  wars  but  few  successes :  nevertheless,  his  flatterers 
called  him  "the  Great."  His  reign  is  marked  by  the 
first  serious  collision  of  the  Greek  kingdoms  with  Rome. 
He  suffered  four  signal  defeats  from  the  Romans,  who  took 
from  him  Asia  Minor,  except  Cilicia,  with  all  his  ships  and 
elephants,  and  an  enormous  treasure.  His  son,  Antiochus 
Epiph'anes,'*  had  nearly  conquered  Egypt,  when  the  Romans 
again  interfered  and  made  him  resign  all  that  he  had  taken. 
He  obeyed,  but  revenged  himself  by  plundering  and  des- 
ecrating the  Temple  at  Jerusalem,  B.  C.   168. 

171.  The  Jews  sprang  to  arms,  inspired  by  their  brave 
leader  Ju'das  Maccabae'us.^  Antiochus,  who  was  now  be- 
yond the  Euphrates,  set  out  in  a  great  rage  to  punish 
their  revolt;  but,  in  attempting  to  plunder  another  temple 
in  Elymais,  he  was  seized  with  a  furious  madness  in  which 
he  died.  Rome  took  the  part  of  the  ''Maccabees,"  and 
Judaea  became  a  separate  kingdom.  Between  the  Parthians 
on  the  east  and  the  Romans  on  the  west,  the  Seleucidae 
were  engaged  for  a  hundred  years  in  constant  wars,  until, 
in  65,  B.  C.,  their  whole  dominion  was  absorbed  into  that 
of  Rome. 

172.  The  Ptolemies.  —  B.  C.  323-30.  The  Egyptian 
kingdom  of  Ptolemy^  was  the  most  brilliant  of  all  the 
Hellenic  dominions.  Under  his  thrifty  management  Egypt 
became  a  market  for  the  whole  world's  wealth.  Traders, 
scholars,  and  artists  thronged  in  multitudes  to  Alexandria, 
which  soon  rivaled  Athens  in  its  beautiful  buildings,  while  it 
surpassed  the  Attic  city  by  its  famous  library — the  greatest 
in   the   ancient  world.      To   enrich   this   collection,   Europe 


THE    PTOLEMIES.  lOl 


and  Asia  were  ransacked  for  literary  works,  and  copies  were 
obtained  at  any  cost.  A  sjiecial  embassy  was  sent  to  Jeru- 
salem to  ask  of  the  High  Priest  a  copy  of  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures  and  tlie  services  of  a  company  of  learned  men 
who  could  translate  them  into  Greek.  These  were  royally 
received  and  entertained  by  Ptolemy,  and  the  version  which 
they  produced  became  one  of  the  chief  treasures  of  the 
Alexandrian  Library.  It  is  called  the  Scptuagint,  either  be- 
cause the  translators  were  seventy  in  number,  or  because  it 
was  sanctioned  by  the  Sanhedrim,  or  Council  of  Seventy,  at 
Alexandria. 

173.  The  first  Ptolemy  was  perhaps  the  greatest  and 
best  man  among  Alexander's  generals  —  distinguished  in 
an  age  of  fraud  and  violence  for  his  truthfulness  and  self- 
control.  None  of  his  descendants  equaled  him  in  char- 
acter; but  his  son,  Ptolemy  Philadel'phus,  continued  the 
patronage  of  learned  men  with  still  greater  liberality,  while 
his  wise  commercial  policy  made  Egypt  the  richest  country 
in  the  world. 

174.  Ptolemy  HI.,  called  Euer'getes,  was  a  great  con- 
queror, and  extended  his  kingdom  both  westward  and 
northward  along  the  Mediterranean  from  Cyrene  to  the 
Hellespont.  He  even  made  conquests  east  of  the  Euphra- 
tes, and  brought  back  some  old  Egyptian  images  which 
had  been  carried  away  by  Sargon  or  Esarhaddon  (§§  13, 
14),  but  his  eastern  acquisitions  were  abandoned  almost 
as  soon  as  they  were  made.  The  rest  of  the  twelve  Ptol- 
emies had  hardly  any  history  worth  recording.  Egypt, 
like  all  the  other  Mediterranean  countries,  became  subject 
at  last  to  the  Roman  power.  Cleopa'tra,  a  brilliant  but 
unscrupulous  princess,  was  the  last  of  this  royal  line;  she 
tried  to  beguile  the  Roman  generals  by  her  arts,  when  she 
could  not  oppose  them  by  arms;  and  for  some  years  she 
was  successful.  But  at  length  An'tony,  her  lover,  was  de- 
feated in  his  contest  with   Octa'vian,  and  Cleopatra  killed 


I02  THE  ANCIENT  WORLD. 

herself  to  escape   from   adorning   the   triumphal   procession 
of  his  conqueror.      Egypt  became  a  Roman  province. 

175.  The  Egyptians,  under  the  Ptolemies,  kept  their 
own  language,  religion,  and  customs,  while,  as  in  all  the 
other  Hellenic  kingdoms,  Greek  was  the  language  of  the 
government.  Royal  and  priestly  decrees,  intended  to  reach 
all  the  mixed  population  of  the  country,  were  written  in 
three  languages :  the  hieroglyphics,  or  sacred  language  of 
the  priests,  the  demotic  speech  of  the  common  people,  and 
Greek.  About  eighty  years  ago,  a  stone,  bearing  one  of 
these  threefold  inscriptions,  was  accidentally  found  by  a 
French  engineer  near  the  Rosetta  mouth  of  the  Nile. 
Learned  men,  with  immense  patience,  compared  the  Greek 
sentences,  which  they  could  easily  read,  with  the  corre- 
sponding characters  of  the  unknown  tongues,  and  thus  ob- 
tained a  key  to  the  long-sealed  writings  of  the  ancient 
Egyptians.  The  Rosetta  Stone  contained  a  decree  of  the 
priests,  ordering  divine  honors  to  be  paid  to  the  fifth  of 
the  Ptolemies  at  his  coronation. 

176.  Greece,  led  by  Athens,  vainly  attempted  to  make 
herself  free  from  Macedon  after  the  death  of  Alexander. 
The  "  Lamian  War"  ended  in  only  confirming  the  Mace- 
donian supremacy,  while  Demosthenes  (§  140)  and  most  of 
his  party  were  condemned  to  exile  or  death.  In  this  time 
of  calamity,  the  Greeks  learned  too  late  the  necessity  of  a 
closer  union  of  the  states.  Several  federations  were  formed, 
of  which  the  most  important  were  the  Achaean  League  in 
southern,  and  the  ^tolian  in  central  Greece.  But,  unhap- 
pily, the  several  states  were  still  divided  by  jealousies, 
which  gave  every  advantage  to  their  enemies.  Rome  and 
Macedon  played  off  one  League  against  the  other  almost 
at  will;  while  the  Romans  were  steadily  advancing  toward 
universal  dominion. 

177.  Philip  V,  the  greatest  of  the  later  Macedonian  kings, 
was  at  length  so  ruinously  defeated  by  them  at  Cyn'oceph'- 


CONQUEST  OF  GREECE.  103 


alae,  that  he  gave  up  all  attempts  to  control  the  Greeks, 
having,    indeed,    more    tlian    enough    to    do    in 
keeping  a  foothold  in  his  own  land.      Philopuj'-  *    '  '^' 

men,^  tlic  chief  of  the  Achiean  League,  was  the  greatest 
man  in  Greece  at  this  crisis.  He  infused  his  own  brave 
and  energetic  spirit  into  the  whole  nation,  and  enabled  it 
for  a  while  to  resist  the  encroachments  of  Rome.  After 
his  death,  B.  C.  183,  the  Roman  power  became  irresistible. 
Per'seus,  the  last  of  the  Macedonian  kings,  was  defeated  at 
Pydna,  B.  C.  168,  and  was  afterward  carried  as  a  prisoner 
\o  Italy,  where  he  died  in  a  dungeon  near  Rome. 

178.  A  few  years  later,  the  remnant  of  the  Acha^ans 
made  a  desperate  effort  to  shake  off  the  Roman  yoke. 
One  of  their  leaders  was  defeated  and  slain  near  Ther- 
mopylae; another  made  a  final  stand  at  Corinth,  but  he, 
too,  was  defeated  and  the  city  was  taken, 
plundered,  and  destroyed.  But  captive  Greece 
ruled  her  conquerors  by  her  intellectual  greatness.  Roman 
nobles  sought  instruction  at  Athens;  and  Greek  philosophy 
and  poetry  inspired  all  that  was  best  in  the  literature  of 
Rome. 

Point  out  on  Maps  i,  2,  3,  and  4,  Antioch,  Alexandria,  Actium, 
Cynocephalte,  Pydna,  Corinth,  Athens,  Thermopylae. 

The  latest  period  in  the  History  of  Greece  may  be  read  in  Grote, 
Chs.  XCV,  XCVI,  and  in  Freeman's  History  of  Federal  Government, 
Vol.  I. 

Some  account  of  the  Seleucidae  will  be  found  in  Rawlinson's  Sixth 
Monarchy.  Their  history  and  that  of  the  Ptolemies  may  be  found  in 
Smith's  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography.  Read  also  of 
Alexandria  and  its  schools  in  Smith's  Dictionary  of  Geography,  in 
Charles  Kingsley's  four  lectures  on  the  subject,  and  in  Draper's  In- 
tellectual Development  of  Europe.  The  "Lives"  of  Aratus  and 
Philopoemen   are  in   Plutarch. 


104  THE  ANCIENT  WORLD. 


NOTES. 

1.  Seleucus,  surnamed  Nicator,  or  the  Conqueror,  rivaled  the  fame 
of  Alexander  as  a  founder  of  cities  and  patron  of  learning.  In  all  the 
seventy-two  provinces  of  his  kingdom,  Greek  towns  became  centers  Of 
Greek  intelligence  and  enterprise  in  the  midst  of  Asiatic  indolence. 
Seleucia,  on  the  Tigris,  was  intended  as  a  rival  to  Babylon;  but  subse- 
quently wisliing  to  keep  watch  of  his  rivals,  Ptolemy  and  Lysimachus, 
he  removed  his  capital  from  that  eastern  valley  to  the  Mediterranean, 
and  built  Antioch,  which  long  ranked  as  the  third  city  in  the  world, 
Rome  and  Alexandria  being  its  only  superiors.  Dying  in  B.  C.  280,  Se- 
leucus was  succeeded  by  his  son  Antiochus  I.,  who  won  the  name  of 
Soter  (savior)  by  a  victory  over  the  Gauls,  but  was  afterward  killed  in 
battle  with  those  barbarians,  B.  C.  261. 

2.  This  Antioch  was  one  of  sixteen  new  cities  of  the  same  name, 
given  to  them  bj^  Seleucus  in  honor  of  his  father  Antiochus.  The  Syr- 
Ian  Antioch,  however,  surpassed  all  the  rest  in  wealth,  beauty,  and  re- 
sources for  enjoyment.  Within  a  few  miles  was  the  celebrated  cypress, 
grove  of  Daphne,  which,  for  the  beauty  of  its  winding  walks  and  nu- 
merous rivulets  and  fountains,  Avas  compared  to  the  Vale  of  Tempe. 
The  road  thither  lay  along  the  river  and  through  the  pleasure-grounds 
attached  to  private  villas,  whose  well-watered  lawns,  gardens,  and 
shrubberies  contributed  to  the  delight  of  every  sense;  and,  in  the  month 
of  August,  the  annual  festival  of  Apollo  and  Artemis  drew  great  crowds 
from  all  the  region  to  the  temple  of  those  divinities  which  Seleucus  had 
erected  in  the  midst  of  the  grove. 

The  city  itself  was  noted  for  the  magnificence  of  its  colonnaded 
streets,  and  the  gayety  of  its  inhabitants.  It  was  visited,  however,  by 
frequent  and  terrible  earthquakes.  One  of  the  most  severe  occurred  in  the 
time  of  Trajan,  A.  D.  115;  another,  in  that  of  Justin,  A.  D.  526,  when  the 
city  was  entirely  destroyed,  and  a  quarter  of  a  million  of  lives  were 
lost.  Twelve  years  later  it  was  sacked  and  burnt  by  the  Persians;  and, 
though  partly  rebuilt  by  Justinian  (gg292,  293),  never  regained  its  high 
rank  as  Queen  of  the  East. 

3.  Antiochus  III.  was  only  fifteen  years  of  age  when  he  succeeded 
his  brother  Seleucus  III.  in  223  B.  C.  He  gained  some  advantages  over 
Ptolemy  IV.,  but  was  afterwards  defeated  by  him  in  a  great  battle  at 
Raphia,  near  Gaza,  B.  C.  217.  In  one  campaign  he  recovered  Media  from 
the  Parthian  king  who  had  overrun  it.  Extending  his  march  to  India, 
he  made  friendly  alliances  with  several  Hindoo  princes.  In  195  B.  C. 
he  received  at  his  court  the  great  but  unfortunate  Hannibal  (^§210-214), 
who  gladly  led  the  Syrian  armies  against  his  ancient  enemies,  the  Ro- 
mans. But  Hannibal's  advice  was  not  followed, -and  Antiochus,  having 
invaded  Greece  in  191  B.  C,  was  defeated  by  the  Romans  at  Thermopylae. 
The  next  year  he  suffered  a  still  more  signal  overthrow  near  Magnesia, 
in  Lydia,  leaving  more  than  half  his  army  dead  upon  the  field.  In  the 
peace  which  followed,  he  surrendered  all  his  ships  and  elephants,  and  • 
all  Asia  Minor  except  Cilicia,  while  he  engaged  to  pay  nearly  $20,000,000 
for  the  expenses  of  the  war.  In  attempting  to  take  part  of  this  amount 
from  the  treasures  of  the  temple  of  Belus,  he  provoked  a  riot  in  which 
he  was  killed,  187  B.  C. 

4.  Antiochus  IV.  was  undeservedly  styled  Epiphanes  (the  Illustrious), 
for  his  reign  brought  little  honor  to  himself  or  his  kingdom.  He  had 
been  one  of  twenty  hostages,  given  by  his  father  to  the  Romans  as  se- 
curities for  the  payment  of  his  enormous  war  indemnity  (see  note  3) ;  and, 
in  his  twelve  years'  residence  at  Rome,  he  adopted  notions  and  habits 
which  proved  displeasing  to  his  people,  when,  in  175  B.  C,  he  returned 
to  be  their  king.  Both  Jews  and  Greeks  believed  that  the  wild  insanity 
which  ended  his  life  was  a  judgment  of  Heaven  for  his  impious  dese- 
cration of  their  temples. 

5.  As  a  part  of  the  studious  insults  heaped  by  Antiochus  Epiphanes 
upon  the  religious  observances  of  the  Jews,  they  were  required  to  offier 
swine's  flesh  upon  their  most  holy  altar  at  Jerusalem.  Mattathias, 
the  officiating  priest,  was  a  brave  old  man,  and,  instead  of  complying 
with  the  royal  mandate,  struck  down  with  his  axe  the  Syrian  officer 


NOTES.  105 

who  brought  It;  then,  with  his  (bur  sons  and  other  loyal  folIowerH.  he 
marchcHl  asulnst  the  syrlaius  and  ovcrtlircw  the  altnrH  which  they  had 
si'l  up.  The  surnamo  Ma«Tahu'Hs  from  tlu*  Hebrew  word  Makkaff,  a 
iiaininer,  was  niven  to  .Tiida.s.  tii(>  most  famous  of  the  sons  of  Mattatlila«, 
in  e«)nse(iuenei«  of  his  vJi-torU's  over  AnticK-lius  alM)Ut  1(S  IJ.(\,  l)ut  liiH 
tiesieiuiants  were  ealle<l  Mat-eabees,  as  well  as  Asmona-ans  (from  tlielr 
ancestor,  Asmotueus).  Tliey  rule«l  .Iiida>a  until  \i.  ('.  .'{7.  Judas  fell  in  but- 
tle with  the  Syrians,  li.  I'.  !««>,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  l)rother  Jona- 
than, Jts  ruler  iind  l»i){h  priest.  He  was  followed  l)y  a  yountjer  brother, 
siuion,  under  whose  leadership  the  independence  of  the  Jews  wuh  rec- 
oKUizeti,  even  by  the  king  of  Syria. 

6.  Alexander  wjis  not  destined  to  carry  out  his  own  magniflcent 
project  [in  the  development  of  Egypt].  That  wa8  left  to  the  general 
wliom  he  mast  esteeme<l,  and  to  whose  personal  prowess  he  had  once 
owed  his  life;  a  man  than  whom  history  knows  few  greater,  Ptolemy, 
the  son  of  I^agus. 

It  wius  his  wisdom  which  perceived  that  the  huge  empire  of  Alexander 
could  not  l)e  kept  together,  and  advised  its  partition  among  the  gener- 
als, taking  care  liimsclf  to  obtain  tlie  lion's  share,  not  in  size,  indeed, 
but  in  capability.  He  saw,  too,  that  the  only  way  to  keep  what  he  had 
got  was  to  make  it  better  and  not  worse  than  he  found  it.  It  had  not 
escaped  that  man  what  was  tlie  secret  of  Greek  sui)remiu*y.  How  had 
he  come  there?  How  had  his  great  nuuster  conciuered  half  the  world? 
How  had  the  little  semi-barbarous  mountain-tribe  ui)  there  in  Pella 
risen  under  Philip  to  be  the  master-race  of  the  globe?  How.  indeed,  had 
Xenoi)hon  and  his  Ten  Thousand  \f.  "vS),  how  had  the  handfuls  of  Salamls 
and  Marathon,  held  out  triumplutntly,  century  after  century,  against 
tlie  vtust  weight  of  the  barbarian?  The  simple  answer  was,  IJecause  the 
Greek  has  mind ;  the  barbarian,  mere  brute-force.  Because  mind  is  the 
lord  of  matter;  because  the  Greek,  being  the  cultivated  man,  is  the  only 
true  man;  the  rest  are  mere  things— clods,  tools  for  the  wise  (Jreek's 
use,  in  spite  of  all  their  material  phantom  strength  of  elephants  and 
treasures,  and  tributaries  by  the  million.  Mind  was  the  secret  of  Greek 
l>ower;  and  for  tliat  Ptolemy  would  work.  He  would  have  an  aristoc- 
racy of  intellect;  he  would  gather  around  him  the  wise  men  of  the 
world,  and  he  would  develop  to  its  highest  the  conception  of  Philip 
when  he  made  Aristotle  the  tutor  of  his  son  Alexander.— Abridged  from 
Alexandria  and  her  Schools.    By  Charles  Kingsley. 

7.  PhilopcBmen,  "the  last  of  the  Greeks,"  was  a  native  of  Megalop- 
olis, in  Arcadia.  In  his  youth  he  was  fired  with  zeal  l)y  the  genius  and 
virtues  of  Epaminondas  (iJ  136),  and  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  the 
art  of  war.  In  B.  C.  208,  he  was  appointed  general-in-chief  of  the  Achae- 
an League,  one  of  the  too-late  efforts  of  tlie  (ireeks  to  find  strength  in 
federal  union.  If  tliey  had  learned  the  secret  earlier,  tlie  history  of 
Greece  might  have  been  longer  and  more  prosperous.  Originally,  the 
Lc.igue  was  only  a  union  of  twelve  small  towns  in  the  north  of  the 
Pel(>|)onnesus,  for  purposes  of  common  worship;  but  the  people  who 
formed  it  were  so  respected  for  their  virtues,  that  powerful  states  some- 
times submitted  disi)utes  to  their  decision.  In  the  year  280  B.  C,  the 
League,  long  discontinued,  was  revived,  not  now  chiefly  for  religious 
j)urposes,  but  for  a  substantial  political  union.  Aratus,  of  Sicyon,  was 
Its  most  famous  leader  before  Pl)iloi)(emen.  The  Encyclopa'dla  Britan- 
iiica  says:  "Thus  did  this  people,  so  celebrated  in  tlie  heroic  age,  once 
more  emerge  from  comparative  ol)scurity,  and  become  the  greatest 
among  the  states  of  (ircece  in  the  lust  days  of  its  national  indejjendence. 
The  inhabitants  of  Patne  and  of  Dyme  were  the  first  assertors  of  undent 
libertj-.  The  tyrants  were  Ijanislied,  und  the  towns  again  made  one 
commonwealth.  Many  neighiioring  towns,  which  admired  the  constitu- 
tion of  this  republic,  founded  on  e(iualily,  liljerty,  the  love  of  lustice. 
and  of  the  public  goml,  were  incorporated  with  the  Achaians  and  admitted 
to  the  full  enjoyment  of  tlieir  laws  and  privileges.  The  Achroan  League 
affords  the  most  perfect  example  in  antiquity  of  the  fetieral  form  of 
government,  and,  allowing  for  difterence  of  time  and  place,  its  resem- 
blance to  that  of  the  United  States  is  very  remarkable."— I.  94. 

The  rasemlilunce  may  perliaps  be  accounted  for  by  the  tact  that  the 
foundei-s  of  our  great  Rei)ublic  were  acquainted  with  Greek  history. 


PART   III.  — Rome. 


CHAPTER   XII. 


THE    ROMAN    KINGDOM  —  ITS    RELIGION. 


T 


HE  Italian  peninsula  had  now  become 

the  seat  of  the  most  powerful   and 

long-enduring   government   that   the 

world  has  ever  known.      But,  if  we 

would   trace   the   stream   of  conquest   to 

its   source,  we   must   go  back  to  a  little 

village    on    the    Tiber,    founded    in    the 

eighth  century  before  Christ,  if  common 

report*  be  true,  by  a  band  of  shepherds 

and  robbers.     Southern  Italy  and   Sicily 

were    already  occupied    by  many  Greek 

cities;    while    north    of   the    Tiber   were 

the  Etruscans,^  a   civilized   and   powerful 

people,  whose  singular  religious  customs 

largely  affected  those  of  the  Romans. 

1 80.  The  latter  belonged  to  the  Latin 
branch  of  the  Italian  race,  and  soon 
allied  themselves  with  the  League  of  thirty  Latin  cities, 
between  the  Liris  and  the  Tiber.  They  resembled  the 
Spartans  in  their  stern  and  haughty  character;  and  the 
influence  of  Rome  in  Latium,  as  of  Sparta  in  Greece,  was 


Standard-Bearer. 


*  For  the  legendary  account  of  the  founding  of  Rome,  see  Ancient 
iistory,  pp.  249,  250, 
(106) 


KINGS  OF  ROME,  107 


always  in  favor  of  government  by  the  nobles,  against  any 
assumption  of  power  by  the  common  people. 

181.  Rome  was  governed  by  kings  for  more  than  two 
centuries  after  its  foundation  (B.  C.  753-510).  Tradition 
names  seven  monarchs :  Rom'idus^  the  mythical  founder  of 
the  state,  and  Nu'ma^  of  the  religion  of  Rome;  Tul'lus 
Hostil'ius  and  An'cus  Mar^tius^  who  extended  its  dominion 
by  conquests;  the  first  Tar'quin^  who  enriched  the  city  by 
many  grand  and  useful  works;  Scr'vius  Tul'lius^  who  gave 
to  every  free  Roman  the  right  of  voting,  divided  public 
lands  among  the  people,  and  organized  the  whole  state 
into  a  military  system;  and  Tarqin'n  the  Proud,  who,  trying 
to  rob  the  people  of  their  newly  found  rights,  was  expelled 
with  all  his  family. 

182.  A  republic  was  then  established  under  the  **good 
laws"  of  SerVius.  Two  chief  magistrates,  afterwards  called 
ionsuls,  were  fleeted  every  year,  with  full  kingly  powers. 
They  were  attended  by  a  guard  of  twelve  lictors,  bearing 
fasces,  or  bundles  of  rods,  as  symbols  of  authority.  At  the 
end  of  their  year  of  office,  the  consuls  could  be  tried  and 
punished  for  any  abuse  of  their  power. 

183.  In  the  earliest  times,  Rome  contained  only  the 
patricians — consisting  of  300  families  —  with  their  clients 
and  slaves.  The  clients,^  though  free,  had  no  civil  rights; 
they  were  represented  in  courts  of  law  by  the  patrician 
whom  they  chose  as  their  patron  —  whose  lands  they  culti- 
vated, or  whose  influence  protected  their  trade.  Each 
patrician  was  proud  of  the  number  of  clients  who  assumed 
iiis  family  name.  The  heads  of  the  300  noble  houses 
constituted  the  Senate,  an  august  assemblage,  mostly  of 
old  men,  distinguished  by  the  broad,  purple  stripe  upon 
their  mantles,  and  by  their  thrones  and  scepters  of  ivory. 
The  whole  body  of  patricians  constituted  the  Coniitia 
Curiata,  which  confirmed  or  annulled  all  laws  proposed 
by  the   magistrates. 


Io8  THE  ANCIENT    WORLD. 

184.  Later,  there  arose  at  Rome  a  new  class,  called 
plebeians,  who  were  either  foreign  settlers,  or  children  of 
mixed  marriages,  or  clients  whose  protecting  families  had 
become  extinct.  The  patricians  were  very  angry  when  the 
new  Assembly  of  the  Hundreds,  formed  by  the  good  king, 
Servius  Tullius  (§181),  included  even  plebeians  in  the  right 
to  vote.  They  believed  that  patricians  alone  could  ap- 
proach the  gods  with  prayers  and  sacrifices,  and  that, 
therefore,  it  would  be  an  insult  to  Heaven  if  a  plebeian 
were  admitted  to  any  office  which  must  be  entered  with 
religious  rites.  Another  point  of  jealousy  was  found  in 
the  division  of  lands  conquered  in  war.  The  patricians 
wanted  these  for  the  pasturage  of  their  enormous  flocks; 
but  Servius  thought  it  right  to  give  the  plebeians  also  a 
share. 

185.  Every  free  Roman  was  a  soldier,  and  was  enrolled, 
according  to  his  wealth,  in  one  of  five  ranks.  The  richest, 
being  able  to  equip  themselves  in  complete  brazen  armor, 
fought  in  front  of  the  army;  the  rest,  according  to  their 
means  and  equipment,  were  placed  in  successive  ranks 
toward  the  rear. 

186.  The  Religion  of  the  Romans  was  less  poetical 
than  that  of  the  Greeks;  but  it  was  bound  up  with  their 
love  of  home  and  country,  and  strongly  affected  their  daily 
life.  As  Greek  monarchs  were  supposed  to  be  descendants 
of  Zeus,  so  the  first  Roman  king  was  fabled  to  be  a  grand- 
son of  Mars,  the  war-god;  and  the  whole  history  of  this 
martial  people  justifies  the  legend.  The  two  chief  divinities 
of  the  Romans  were  Ju'piter  and  Mars;  and  almost  all 
their  yearly  religious  festivals  were  connected  either  with 
war  or  tillage.  The  worship  of  some  of  the  other  divinities 
was  borrowed  from  abroad;  e.  g.  that  of  Apollo  from  the 
Greeks,  and  that  of  Miner'va  from  the  Etruscans. 

187.  But  the  "household  gods"  were  nearest  and  dearest 
to   every  Roman   heart.     Every  house  was   a   temple,  and 


KEUGION  OF  THE  ROMANS.  109 

every  meal  a  sacrifice  to  Ves'ta,  the  home-goddess.  Her 
tciiii)lc  was  the  hearthstone  of  the  city,  where  six  noble 
maidens  guarded  the  sacred  fire  by  night  and  day.  Over 
the  door  of  every  house  was  a  little  chaj)el  of  the  LarcSy 
or  ancestors  of  the  family,  to  whom  the  father  paid  his 
devotions  whenever  he  entered.* 

188.  The  Romans,  like  the  Greeks,  believed  in  oracles 
(S99),  while  from  the  Etruscans  they  borrowed  rules  for  the 
interpretation  of  signs  in  the  heavens,  of  the  api)earance 
of  sacrifices,  and  of  dreams.  The  Four  Sacred  Colleges 
were  those  of  the  Pontiffs^  the  Augurs^  the  Heralds^  and 
the  Keepers  of  the  Sibylline  Books}  The  first  regulated 
public  worship  and  kept  the  calendar;  the  second  con- 
sulted the  gods  with  reference  to  all  public  affairs;  the 
third  guarded  the  honor  of  the  nation  in  its  dealings 
with  foreign  powers;  the  fourth,  in  times  of  great  public 
calamity,  looked  into  the  Sibylline  Books,  which  were 
supposed  to  prophesy  the  fate  of  Rome. 

i8g.  Once  in  five  years,  after  the  taking  of  the  census, 
there  was  a  solemn  purification  of  the  city  and  all  the 
people,  by  means  of  prayers  and  sacrifices,  to  avert  the 
anger  of  the  gods.  In  like  manner  farmers  were  supposed 
to  purify  their  fields,  and  shepherds  their  flocks;  generals 
their  armies,  and  admirals  their  fleets,  to  guard  against 
disasters  which  might  be  visited  upon  some  secret  or 
open  impiety.  5 

Name  the  boundaries  of  Italy.  The  tribes  who  occupied  it  in  the 
early  days  of  Rome.     What  islands  near  Italy? 

Read  the  early  history  of  Rome  in  Arnold,  Niebuhr,  and  Mommsen. 

NOTES. 

1.  The  Etruscans,  or  Tuscans,  differed  much  from  the  other  nations 
of  Italy  in  lanfjuiige,  appearaiu'c,  and  character.  Probably  they  were  two 
races  combined,— the  mass  being  Pela."<gi  (J:S«),  who  were  conquered  and 
absorbed,  perhaps  even  before  they  entered  Italy,  by  a  more  powerful 
people  from  the  North,  called  by  themselves  Rcufena.  History  first  finds 
this  conquering  people  in  Rhoetla,  the  country  about  the  head-waters 


no  THE  ANCIENT   WORLD. 


of  the  Adige,  the  Danube,  and  the  Rhine,  where,  until  lately,  their 
language  was  still  spoken,  and  works  of  art  like  theirs  were  found. 
Entering  Italy,  they  formed,  in  time,  three  distinct  confederations,  of 
twelve  cities  each.  The  first  was  in  tlie  plain  of  the  Po;  the  second.  In 
Tuscany,  which  still  bears  their  name;  the  third,  in  Campania;  but  the 
last  was  lost  in  wars  with  the  Samnites. 

At  a  very  early  period,  the  Etruscans  were  a  luxurious  and  wealthy 
people.  They  had  treaties  with  the  (Carthaginians;  they  sent  three  ships 
to  aid  the  Athenians  in  their  war  in  Sicily  (g  130).  Their  architecture,  as 
still  existing  in  city  walls  and  amphitheaters,  is  of  the  most  massive 
character,  and  their  tombs  contain  untold  wealth  of  bronzes  and  jew- 
elry. 

Their  religion  was  gloomy  and  superstitious,  consisting  mainly  of 
contrivances  for  averting  calamities  and  predicting  future  events.  Their 
elaborate  books  of  divination  were  said  to  be  made  up  of  the  sayings 
of  a  miraculous  dwarf  named  Tages,  whom  a  plowman  found  one  day 
in  his  furrow,  and  who,  though  only  a  boy,  iiad  gray  hair,  and  was 
wiser  than  any  ancient  sage.  His  sentences  were  delivered  in  verse,  like 
oracles  (g  99),  and  were  carefully  written  down.  They  taught  how  to 
avert  the  wrath  of  the  gods  by  sacrifices,  and  to  learn  their  will  by 
auguries  drawn  from  the  flight  of  birds,  from  thunder  and  lightning, 
and  from  the  entrails  of  slain  beasts.  The  fifth  and  seventh  kings 
of  Rome  (^181)  were  Etruscans  from  Tarquinii.  The  first  Tarquin 
adorned  his  capital  with  magnificent  buildings,  and  drained  it  by  an 
extensive  system  of  sewers.  A  characteristic  specimen  of  Etruscan  ar- 
chitecture is  seen  in  the  still  perfect  round  arch  of  the  Cloaca  Maxima. 

2.  After  the  plebeians  had  obtained  equal  civil  rights  with  the  patri- 
cians, the  character  of  clientage  changed-  but  great  men  still  prided 
themselves  upon  having  a  crowd  of  dependents  waiting  in  their  recep- 
tion-halls, or  following  them  through  the  streets.  One  cliief  duty  of 
the  client  was  the  morning  salutation.  The  Romans  were  early  risers, 
and  the  vestibulesof  great  houses  were  thronged  before  sunrise  with  those 
who  came  to  pay  their  respects  to  the  proprietor.  About  sunrise  the 
hall  doors  were  thrown  open,  and  the  patron  made  his  appearance, 
spoke  with  each  of  his  callers,  invited  some  to  dinner,  and  heard  the 
requests  of  any  who  needed  advice  or  aid.  Originally  food  was  either 
served  to  the  guests  or  given  out  in  baskets:  as  this  became  inconven- 
ient, a  fixed  salary  was  assigned  to  each  client,  which  was  often  his 
only  means  of  support.  Special  distributions  were  made  on  occasions 
of  domestic  festivity ;  when  there  was  a  wedding  in  the  patron's  family, 
a  piece  of  gold  was  given  to  each  client. 

3.  Here  is  a  picture  of  tlie  life  of  a  well-born  Roman,  from  "  The  An- 
cient City,"  by  M.  Fustel  de  Coulanges:  "Each  one  of  his  daily  actions 
is  a  rite;  his  whole  day  belongs  to  his  religion.  Morning  .and  evening 
he  invokes  his  fire  [note  4.  p.  62],  his  penates,  and  his  ancestors;  in 
leaving  and  entering  his  house  he  addresses  a  prayer  to  them.  Every 
meal  is  a  religious  act,  which  he  shares  with  his  domestic  divinities. 

"  He  leaves  his  house,  and  can  hardly  take  a  step  without  meeting 
some  sacred  object— either  a  chapel,  or  a  place  formerly  struck  by  light- 
ning, or  a  tomb;  sometimes  he  must  step  back  and  pronounce  a  prayer; 
sometimes  he  must  turn  his  eyes  and  cover  his  face,  to  avoid  the  sight 
of  some  ill-boding  object. 

"  Every  day  he  sacrifices  in  liis  house,  every  month  in  his  curia,  sev- 
eral months  a  year,  with  his  genu  or  his  tribe.  Above  all  these  gods, 
he  must  offer  worship  to  those  of  the  city.  There  are  in  Rome  more 
gods  than  citizens. 

"He  oflfers  sacrifices  to  thank  the  gods;  he  ofTei-s  them,  and  by  far  the 
greater  number,  to  appease  their  wrath.  .  .  .  There  is  a  festival  for 
seed-time,  one  for  harvest,  and  one  for  the  pruning  of  the  vines.  Before 
corn  has  reached  the  ear,  the  Roman  has  oflered  more  than  ten  sacrifices, 
and  invoked  some  ten  divinities,  for  the  success  of  his  harvest.  He  has, 
above  all,  a  number  of  festivals  for  the  dead,  because  he  is  afraid  of 
them.  He  never  leaves  his  own  house  without  looking  to  see  if  any 
bird  of  bad  augury  appears.  There  are  words  which  he  dares  not  pro- 
nounce for  his  life.  If  he  experiences  some  desire,  he  inscribes  his  wish 
upon  a  tablet,  which  he  places  at  the  feet  of  the  statue  of  a  divinity. 

"  He  steps  out  of  his  house  always  with  his  right  foot  first.    He  has 


NOTES.  II 


his  liair  cut  only  during  the  full  moon.  He  CArrios  amuletH  upon  hlB 
l>orson.  Ho  rovers  the  walls  of  his  hous<>  with  magic  Inscriptions  against 
tiro.  Ho  knows  of  Ibrniulas  for  avoiding  sickness,  and  of  others  f«)r 
curing  It,  hut  he  must  repeat  them  twenty-seven  times,  and  spit  In  a 
certain  fashion  at  each  repetition. 

"He  does  not  delihorate  in  the  senate  If  the  victims  have  not  given 
favorahle  signs.  He  leaves  the  assomhlv  of  the  people  if  he  hears  the 
cry  of  a  mouse.  He  renounces  the  host-laid  plans  if  ne  percelvoH  a  hati 
presage,  or  if  an  ill-omened  word  has  struck  nis  ear;  he  is  l)rave  in  bat- 
llo,  hut  on  condition  thai  tlie  ausi)ices  assure  him  the  victory. 

"This  Roman,  whom  we  i)resent  liere,  is  not  the  man  of  the  people, 
the  foeble-minded  man  whom  misery  and  ignorance  have  made  super- 
stitit)us.  Wo  are  speaking  of  tlie  patrician,  the  noble,  powerful,  and 
ricli  num.  This  patrician  is,  by  turns,  warrior,  maglHtrate,  consul, 
farmer,  merchant ;  l)ut  every-where  and  always  he  Is  a  priest,  and  his 
thoughts  are  llxeil  upon  the  g<Kls." 

4.  The.se  books  were  kept  with  the  greatest  care  In  a  stone  chest 
under  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Capltolinus.  A  curious  story  was  told  of 
their  origin.  A  strange  wonum  came  one  day  to  King  Taniuin— whether 
the  First  or  the  Second  the  legends  did  not  agree— and  ofVered  him,  for 
a  certain  price,  nine  books  of  i)ropbecies.  The  King  refusing  to  purchase, 
she  went  away  and  burned  throe  volumes,  then,  returning,  asked  the 
same  price  for  the  remaining  six.  The  king  again  refused,  and  the 
Sibyl  again  disappeared,  but  came  back,  demanding  the  same  price  for 
the  books  that  were  left.  This  time  the  king  bought  the  mysterious 
volumes,  and  the  woman  wjus  never  seen  again. 

At  flrst,  two  keepers  of  the  books  were  appointed,  subsequently  there 
wore  ten,  and  at  last  fifteen.  The  prophecies  were  written  on  palm 
leaves,  and  probably  in  Greek.  It  Is  not  known  whether  they  foretold 
future  events  or  merely  dictated  the  forms  of  worship  by  which  the 
supposed  wrath  of  the  gods  could  be  appeased  in  times  of  jpestilence  or 
other  calamity.  The  Sibyls,  if  indeed  tliey  had  any  real  existence,  seem 
to  have  been  Asiatic  proi)hetesses.  who  wandered  from  place  to  place 
with  their  sacred  books.  Six  of  these  weird  women  are  mentioned  by 
ancient  writers:  the  Erythraean  (to  whom  the  Roman  volumes  above- 
mentioned  were  ascribed),  the  Samlan,  the  Egyptian,  the  Sardinian,  the 
C'umeean,  and  the  Hebrew.  There  are  said  to  liave  been  four  more, 
whose  names  and  origin  can  not  be  discovered. 

5.  One  feature  of  Roman  religion  has  neither  been  borrowed  nor  imi- 
tated. "They  built  temples  and  ofTered  sacrifices  to  the  highest  human 
excellencies— to  Valor,  to  Truth,  to  Good  Faith,  to  Modesty,  to  Charity, 
to  Concord.  The  Virtues  were  elevated  into  beings,  to  whom  disobedi- 
ence could  be  punished  as  a  crime;  and  the  supei-stitlous  fears  which 
run  so  often  into  mischievous  idolatries,  were  enlisted  with  conscience 
In  the  direct  service  of  right  action.  On  the  same  principle  the  Romans 
chose  the  heroes  and  heroines  of  their  national  history.  .  .  .  On  the 
same  principle,  too,  they  had  a  public  officer,  a  Cenmr  Morum,  who 
might  examine  into  the  habits  of  private  families,  rebuke  extravagance, 
check  luxury,  punish  vice  and  self-indulgence,  nay,  who  could  remove 
from  the  senate,  the  great  council  of  elders,  persons  whose  moral  con- 
duct was  a  reproach  to  a  body  on  whose  reputation  no  shadow  could 
be  allowed  to  rest. 

"Sudi  the  Romans  were  in  the  day  when  their  dominion  had  not 
extended  beyond  the  limits  of  Italy;  and,  because  they  were  such,  tliey 
were  able  to  prosper  under  a  constitution  which,  to  modern  experience, 
would  promise  onlv  the  most  hopeless  confusion.    .    .    . 

"The  sense  of  duty  Is  present  in  each  detail  of  life;  the  obligatory 
vmst,  which  binds  the  will  to  the  course  which  right  principle  has 
marked  out  for  it,  produces  a  fiber  like  the  fiber  of  the  oak.  Tlie  edu- 
cated Greeks  know  little  of  it.  They  had  courage  and  genius  and  en- 
thusiasm, but  they  iiatl  no  horror  of  immorality  as  such.  The  Stoics 
sjiw  what  was  wanting,  and  tried  to  supply  it;  but,  though  they  could 
provide  a  theory  of  action,  they  could  not  make  the  theory  a  reality: 
and  it  is  noticeable  that  Stoicism,  as  a  rule  of  life,  became  important 
only  when  adopted  by  Romans."— /^-oiKte's  "C'oesar." 


CHAPTER   XIII. 

THE    ROMAN    REPUBLIC  —  SAMNITE    WARS. 


Tribune  and  Lictor.^ 


^HE    480    years'    history 
of    the    Roman     Re- 
public   is   a  record   of 
ahiiost  continual  wars; 
but    there    were    four    dis- 
tinctly   marked     periods, 
which  will    help   us  to   un- 
derstand   the    development 
of  this  remarkable  nation. 

I.  Wars  for  existence, 
and  growth  of  the  Re- 
publican   Constitution,     B. 

c.  510-343- 

II.  Wars  for  possession 
of  Italy,  B.  C.  343-264. 

Wars  for  Foreign  Dominion,  B.  C.  264-133. 
Civil  Wars,  B.  C.   133-30. 

Patricians  and  Plebeians.  —  In  the  contests 
with  the  Latins  and  Etruscans,  which  followed  the  expul- 
sion of  the  kings  (§  181),  a  great  part  of  the  Roman  ter- 
ritory was  lost,  and  the  rest  was  laid  waste.  The  poor 
people,  who  derived  their  living  from  the  soil,  were  in 
great  distress,  and  had  to  borrow  money  from  the  patricians 
at  ruinous  interest  in  order  to  go  on  with  their  farming. 
Some  even  sold  themselves  as  slaves,  and  others  were 
thrown  into  the  dungeons  of  their  creditors.  At  length, 
tired  of  a  government  which  cared  only  for  the  rich,  and 
had  neither  justice  nor  pity  for  the  poor,  the  plebeians 
seceded  to  the  Sacred  Mount,  and  resolved  to  form  a  new 
city. 

(112) 


III. 
IV. 

191 


AGRARIAN  LAWS.  113 

19a.  The  patricians  now  consented  to  cancel  the  debts 
of  all  who  were  unable  to  pay,  and  agreed  to  the  yearly 
election  of  two  tn'bums^  whose  duty  it  should  be  to  de- 
fend the  interests  of  the  plebeians.  The  next  year  an 
''Agrarian  Law"  provided  for  the  distribution  of  a  certain 
part  of  the  public  lands  among  the  plebeians,  while  the 
rents  of  those  leased  to  patricians  were  applied  to  the  pay- 
ment of  soldiers  who  had  hitherto  been  comi)elled  to  give 
their  services  to  the  state.  The  consul  who  proposed  this 
law  was  condemned  and  beheaded  at  the  expiration  of  his 
term ;  and  the  first  tribune  who  attempted  to  enforce  it 
was  murdered.  But  its  enemies  only  defeated  themselves, 
for  so  violent  was  the  popular  rage  that  the  next  tribune, 
Publirius,  was  able  to  obtain  a  still  greater  security  for  the 
rights  of  the  plebeians.  This  was,  the  power  to  elect  their 
own  officers*  in  their  own  Meeting  of  the  Tribes;  and 
there,  too,  to  discuss  all  questions  affecting  the  whole  na- 
tion, before  they  were  presented  to  the  Assembly  of  the 
Hundreds.  This  prevented  the  plebeians  being  outvoted 
by  the  clients  of  the  noble  houses,  who  of  course  were 
controlled  by  their  masters. 

193.  Some  proud  patricians,  rather  than  share  their 
power  with  inferiors,  went  over  to  the  enemies  of  Rome. 
Among  these  was  Ca'ius  Mar'cius — called  Co'riola'nus,  be- 
cause he  had  taken  the  town  of  Corioli  from  the  Volscians; 
but  it  was  with  these  same  Volscians  that  he  now  took 
refuge,  and  even  led  their  armies  against  his  native  city. 
A  sacred  embassy  of  priests  and  augurs  went  out  to  meet 
him,  but  he  refused  all  terms  of  peace.  At  last,  his 
mother,  his  wife,  and  his  little  children  appeared,  followed 
by  a  procession  of  noble  ladies,  entreating   him  to  spare 


*"From   that    time,"  says  a   Roman   historian,    "the   election  of 
tribunes  and  aediles  was   made  7vithout   hirds,^"^  alluding    to  the  cere- 
mony of  "taking  the  auguries,"  which  must  precede  every  election 
in  which  patricians  had  part.     See  \  184. 
Hist.—  8. 


114  THE  ANCIENT  WORLD. 

their  altars  and  their  homes.  Coriolaniis  yielded,  but  with 
the  despairing  cry:  ''Mother,  thou  hast  saved  Rome,  but 
thou  hast  lost  thy  son !  "  He  led  away  his  army.  Some 
say  the  Volscians  killed  him  in  their  revenge,  but  others, 
that  he  lived  to  great  age,  lamenting,  in  the  loneliness  of 
exile  and  infirmity,  the  foolish  pride  that  had  robbed  him 
of  home  and  honor. 

194.  After  many  years  of  contention,  all  classes  agreed 
to  appoint  ten  men  {Decemviri)^  who  should  consider  and 
adjust  all   conflicting   claims  and  make  a  new  constitution 

for  Rome.  The  results  of  their  labor  were 
•  451,  450.  ^^  Laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables,*  which  be- 
came the  "source  of  all  public  and  private  right"  in  Rome 
for  a  thousand  years.  They  were  approved  by  the  Senate, 
and  ratified  by  the  Assembly  of  the  Hundreds.  But, 
though  formally  accepted,  the  laws  were  not  enforced  until 
two  secessions  and  many  violent  tumults,  caused  by  patri- 
cian outrages,  had  proved  the  power  of  the  plebeians. 

195.  Rome  was  soon  afterward  visited  by  a  terrible 
calamity.  The  Gauls,^  who  had  conquered  northern  Italy, 
came  pouring  through  the  defiles  of  the  Apennines,  and 
defeated   the  whole   Roman   army  with   great   slaughter  in 

the  battle  of  the  AlHa;  then,  pushing  on  with 
'  ^^'  irresistible  fury,  captured  and  burned  the  city. 
The  rocky  height  of  the  Capitol  was  bravely  defended  for 
several  months,  and  then  ransomed  for  1000  pounds  of 
gold.  The  Gauls  continued  for  many  years  to  ravage 
Italy,  and  twice  encamped  within  a  few  miles  of  Rome, 
but  at  last  they  withdrew  to  the  fertile  plain  between  the 
Alps  and  the  northern  Apennines,  which  was  thenceforth 
named  from  them  Cisalpine  Gaul.  They  learned  letters 
and  civilized  habits  from  the  Etruscans,  and  taught  them 
in  some  degree  to  their  wild  kindred  among  the  Alps. 


So  called  because  they  were  inscribed  on  bronze  tablets. 


THE   SAMNITES.  115 


196.  The  poverty  and  distress  of  the  plebeians,  resulting 
from  the  ravages  of  the  Gauls,  made  the  patricians  only 
more  haughty  and  overbearing.  Rome  was  a  shapeless 
heap  of  rubbish,  through  whicli  even  the  direction  of 
former  streets  could  not  be  traced;  while  orchards  and 
farm-buildings  outside  the  walls  had  all  been  burnt.  Again 
the  dungeons  beneath  the  patrician  houses  on  the  hills 
were  crowded  with  insolvent  debtors,  who  cried  out  against 
the  cruelty  of  their  tormentors. 

197.  Hie  tribune  Licin'ius  Sto'lo,  and  his  colleague  L. 
Sex'tius,  then  brought  forward  a  series  of  laws,  which  were 
designed  to  raise  the  plebeians  to  absolute  ecjuality  with  the 
patricians  in  civil  rights  and  the  use  of  the  public  lands. 
Of  course  the  latter  violently  opposed  the  meas- 
ures; but,  after  some  years,  the  "  Licinian  '  ^  ^* 
Laws  "^  were  passed,  and  Rome  had  for  the  first  time  a 
really  popular  government.  Of  the  two  consuls  chosen 
every  year,  one  was  henceforth  a  plebeian.  The  consuls 
still  had  unlimited  military  power;  but  most  of  their  judicial 
duties  were  now  committed  to  a  prcetor^  who  for  a  time 
was  chosen  only  from  the  patricians. 

198.  Wars  in  Italy. — At  peace  with  herself,  Rome 
now  looked  out  upon  the  broader  field  where  she  was  to 
become  mistress  of  the  world.  The  Samnites  to  the  south- 
ward were  more  civilized  and  powerful  than  the  Latins. 
They  had  conquered  most  of  the  Greek  settlements  (§88) 
in  southern  Italy,  and  had  adopted  Greek  ways  of  living 
and  thinking,  so  that  they  were  superior  in  intellectual 
culture  to  their  neighbors,  with  whom  they  were  now 
to  contest  the  rule  of  the  peninsula.  But  the  Romans 
had  already  proved  that  wonderful  genius  for  government 
Nvhich  afterward  enabled  them  to  bind  together  all  their 
conquests  into  one  great  empire;  while  the  Samnites  had 
only  a  loose  confederation  of  cities  without  any  recognized 
leader. 


Il6  THE   ANCIENT  WORLD. 

igg.  All  Italy  was  engaged  on  one  side  or  the  other; 
and  the  three  Samnite  Wars  lasted,  with  brief  intervals, 
more  than  half  a  century  (B.  C.  343-290).  The  Latin 
allies,  becoming  unruly,  were  reduced  to  obedience  by  a 
war,  which  broke  up  the  League  (§  180)  and  subjected  all 
Latium  to  Roman  law.  Two  incidents  of  the 
■  ^^^'  Latin  war  illustrate  the  Spartan-like  sternness 
of  the  Romans.  All  soldiers  were  forbidden  to  leave  the 
camp  on  pain  of  death;  but  Ti'tus  Man'lius,  the  consul's 
son,  vexed  by  the  challenge  of  a  Latin  warrior,  went  out 
and  killed  him,  and,  returning  in  triumph,  laid  the  spoils 
at  his  father's  feet.  The  consul  ordered  his  guards  to 
behead  the  young  man  before  his  tent  in  the  presence  of 
all  the  army. 

200.  The  battle  which  decided  the  fate  of  Latium,  took 
place  at  the  foot  of  Mt.  Vesuvius,  339  B.  C.  The  augurs 
had  declared  (§  188)  that  Fate  demanded  the  destruction 
of  an  army  on  one  side  and  a  general  on  the  other.  It 
was  therefore  agreed  by  the  Roman  commanders  that,  if 
any  portion  of  their  army  should  begin  to  give  way,  the 
consul  commanding  in  that  quarter  would  devote  himself 
to  death  for  the  deliverance  of  the  state.  Manlius  led 
the  Roman  right;  De'cius,  the  plebeian  consul,  the  left. 
All  fought  bravely,  but  at  length  the  Roman  left  wavered. 
Decius  called  the  pontiff,  and  with  his  aid  repeated  the 
solemn  words  in  which  he  devoted  himself  and  the  Latin 
army  to  the  gods  of  death  and  the  grave;  then,  mounting 
his  horse,  plunged  into  the  thickest  of  the  fight  and  was 
almost  immediately  killed. 

201.  B.  C.  326-304.  The  Second  Samnite  War  lasted 
22  years.  The  Romans  suffered  a  disgraceful  defeat  at  the 
Caudine  Forks,  where  the  remnant  of  their  army  which 
survived  had  to  "pass  under  the  yoke,"  in  token  of 
submission.  A  treaty  of  peace  was  then  made ;  but  the 
Roman   Senate   refused    to  be  bound  by  it,   and  sent   the 


THE    THIRD   SAAfNITE    WAR.  117 


two  consuls  and  two  tribunes  who  had  signed  it,  bound  in 
chains,  to  suffer  the  vengeance  of  the  Samnites.  Pon'tius, 
the  Samnite  general,  generously  released  them.  After 
many  reverses  and  a  few  great  victories,  the  Romans 
were  at   length   acknowledged   as   masters   of   Italy. 

202.  The  Samnites,  however,  made  use  of  the  six  years' 
interval  of  peace  to  enlist  all  the  Italian  nations  in  a  new 
league  against  Rome,  and,  in  298  W.  ('..  the  Third  Samnite 
War  broke  out.  Etruscans,  Umbrians,  and  Gauls,  on  the 
north,  were  allied  with  Lucanians,  Apulians,  Greeks,  and 
Samnites    on    the    south.      In    a    ^ixai    battle 

at    Sentinum,    the    Gauls    and    Samnites    were  "  ^'^^' 

defeated,  and  25,000  men  were  slain.  Pontius,  the  Sam- 
nite general,  still  defended  his  country  by  his  brilliant 
genius;  but  at  length  the  Romans  gained  a  victory,  in 
which  he  was  made  a  prisoner  and  compelled  to  walk 
the  streets  of  Rome  loaded  with  chains  to  adorn  the 
triumph'' of  the  consul.  When  the  procession  reached  the 
foot  of  the  Capitoline  Hill,  he  was  led  aside  and  be- 
headed in  the  Mamertine  Prison.  Samnium  was  com- 
pletely subjected,  and  a  Roman  colony  of  20,000  people 
guarded  its  territory. 

203.  Two  short  wars  added  to  the  Roman  possessions 
the  lands  of  the  ^qui  and  Sabines,  rich  in  oil,  wine,  and 
forests  of  oak.  These  were  divided  among  the  people, 
many  of  whom  had  been  made  poor  by  the  long  wars; 
and,  by  the  wise  laws  of  Hortensius,  Rome  was  saved 
from  civil  strife  for  150  years. 

204.  The  next  important  contest  was  with  Pyr'rhus,*king 

of  Epirus,  an  ambitious  and  able  prince  who 

r    .     ,    .         Til  1  c  '^-  c.  281-278. 

was  mvited  mto  Italy  by  a  league  of  many 

nations,  with  the  Greek  city  of  Tarentum  at  their  head. 
At  Heracle'a,  his  elephants  put  the  Roman  horse  to  flight; 
and  his  military  genius  was  proved  by  many  other  vic- 
tories.     But  while   Pyrrhus  was  fighting    for  glory,   Rome 


Il8  THE   ANCIENT  WORLD. 

was  fighting  for  existence.  As  often  as  one  army  was 
destroyed,  another  was  ready  to  oppose  him;  and  at 
length  he  withdrew  into  Sicily,  hoping  to  recruit  his  forces 
for  a  fresh  attempt.  He  was  defeated  two 
■  ^^^  years  later  at  Beneventum,  and  left  Italy  never 
to  return.  His  allies  submitted,  and  the  whole  Italian 
peninsula,   properly  so  called,   was  now  subject   to  Rome. 

205.  Her  power  was  secured  by  many  new  colonies  and 
by  military  roads,  the  remains  of  which  may  yet  be  seen. 
The  maritime  colonies  possessed  the  full  "Roman  right;" 
/.  ^.,  the  colonists  retained  all  the  powers  and  privileges 
of  Roman  citizens.  They  could  go  to  Rome  and  vote  in 
the  assemblies;  and  they  could  be  elected  to  any  office 
which  would  have  been  open  to  them  when  living  in  the 
mother  city.  The  ''Latin  right"  was  that  which  had  been 
given  to  the  cities  of  Latium  when  they  were  first  made 
subject  to  Rome.  It  was  bestowed  on  the  less  favored 
colonies;  but  it  included  commercial  and  other  privileges, 
which  bound  them  to  Rome  by  ties  of  interest. 

Point  out,  on  Map  5,  the  nations  engaged  in  the  Third  Samnite 
War:  see  g  202.  Point  out  Sentinum.  Tarentum.  Beneventum. 
Heraclea. 

Read  the  story  of  this  period,  more  fully  told,  in  Arnold's  History 
of  Rome. 

NOTES. 

1.  Lictors  were  public  olRcers  who  attended  every  great  magistrate 
of  Rome,  in  greater  or  less  number,  according  to  his  ranlt.  They  carried 
fasces,  which  were  bundles  of  birch  or  elm  rods,  bound  together,  and 
iisually  having  an  axe  in  the  middle.  Each  king  had  been  preceded 
by  twelve  lictors;  after  the  republic  was  established,  one  of  the  consuls 
was  attended  by  twelve,  bearing  the  fasces  and  axe;  the  other  consul 
had  twelve  lictors,  but  their  fasces  consisted  of  rods  only.  There  is  a 
curious  story  told  by  Livy,  which  shows  how  much  inaportance  was 
attached  to  the  pomp  and  dignity  supposed  to  be  derived  from  these 
attendants: 

"Fabius  Ambustus,  one  of  the  most  illustrious  patricians,  had  two 
daughters  whom  he  gave  in  marriage— one  to  a  patrician,  who  became 
a  military  tribune,  the  other  to  Liciuius  Stolo,  a  prominent  plebeian. 
This  plebeian's  wife  was  one  day  at  the  house  of  her  sister,  when  the 
lictors,  conducting  the  military  tribune  to  his  home,  struck  the  door 
with  their  fasces.  As  she  was  ignorant  of  this  usage,  she  showed  signs 
of  fear.  The  laughter  and  teasing  questions  of  her  sister  showed  her 
how  much  she  was  degraded  by  the  plebeian  marriage  that  had  placed 


NOTES,  119 

her  in  u  huuso  whoiv  siu-h  lionorN  could  never  come.  Ilcr  Aitlicr  guewted 
the  cause  of  her  troul)lc,  and  consoUMl  her  hy  pronilHinte  that  hIic  Hhould 
Koe  at  licr  (»\vn  hou>o  \\  hat  slic  had  seen  at  her  sister's."  Acconllngly, 
hojoiiie<l  with  h«>r  hnshand  In  obtaining  for  tlie  plelieians  a  share  in 
the  eonsuhir  olliee,  W.  C.  'MS. 

"From  tliat  time  the  piebs  had  every  year  one  of  the  two  consuls, 
and  they  were  not  long  in  succeeding  to  other  magistracies.  The  plebe- 
ian wore  the  purple  dress,  and  was  preceded  by  the  fasces;  he  aamin* 
istered  Justlee;  he  was  a  senator;  he  governed  the  city,  and  conimande<l 
tl>e  legions." 

liieinius  Htolo  was  liimself  consul  fortlie  years  IJ.  C.  3(M  and  361:  and 
we  niay  hope  that  Fabia  often  enjoyed  the  uoise  of  the  twelve  lictcrs 
at  her  door. 

2.  The  Gauls  were  a  warlike  and  powerful  people  belonging  to  the 
Celtic  braneli  of  tlie  Aryan  family  (see  note  1,  p.  1«).  At  this  time,  and 
for  a  eentury  later,  they  were  eontinuailly  passing  the  mountain-barrier 
whieli  (livUles  Central  from  Southern  Europe;  and  their  dominion,  at 
it«  greatest  extent,  is  said  to  have  been  as  great,  though,  of  course,  far 
less  compact  and  well  organized,  than  the  Roman  empire  was  after- 
wards. 

On  their  approach  to  Rome,  the  Vestal  Virgins  (^187)  withdrew,  still 
carefully  guarding  the  sacred  tire  in  urns,  to  Ctere,  in  Etruria;  the  mass 
of  the  peoi)le,  with  the  fugitives  from  the  conquered  army,  took  refuge 
In  other  Etruscan  towns;  but  the  noblest  of  the  patricians  resolved  to 
hold  the  capital.  Those  who  were  too  old  to  tight,  lioped  to  serve  their 
country  equally  well  by  a  heroic  death.  They  repeated  after  the  Pontifex 
Maximus,  a  solemn  imprecation  (see  ?200)  devoting  tliemselves  and  the 
armv  of  the  Gauls  to  death  for  the  deliverance  of  Rome.  Then,  arrayed 
In  tlieir  most  nuigniticent  apparel,  holding  their  ivory  scepters,  and 
seated  each  upon  his  ivory  throne  at  the  door  of  his  own  house,  they 
sat  motionless  while  the  tumult  of  plunder  and  pillage  was  going  on 
around.  The  barbarians  were  struck  with  admiration  ot  these  venerable 
figures;  and  one  of  them  began  reverently  to  stroke  the  long  white 
beard  of  Papirius.  Enraged  by  this  profaning  touch,  the  old  senator 
struck  him  with  his  ivory  scepter.  It  was  the  signal  for  slaughter.  The 
Gauls,  recovering  from  their  momentary  awe,  massacred  the  noble  old 
men  without  demy. 

The  siege  of  the  capital  continued  six  or  eight  months.  At  one  time 
it  wiis  nearly  taken,  the  enemy  having  scaled  the  steep  clifT  by  night. 
The  garrison  were  asleep,  but  some  geese,  sacred  to  Juno,  gave  a  timely 
alarm,  and  the  citadel  wsis  saved.  Marcus  Manlius,  who  was  the  first 
to  awaken,  flung  the  fii>it  assailants  down  the  cliff,  and  thus  maintained 
the  fortress  until  his  comrades  could  come  to  his  aid. 

3.  The  "Licinian  Laws  "  were  three: 

1.  To  relieve  present  distress,— the  enormous  Interest  already  paid  upon 
debts,  was  reckoned  as  part  of  the  principal,  and  so  deducted  from  the 
sum  still  due. 

2.  To  prevent  future  poverty,— the  lands  belonging  to  the  state,  but 
hitherto  absorbed  by  tlie  patricians,  were  to  be  thrown  open  etiually  to 
the  plebeians,  and  no  man  could  hold  more  than  312  acres,  or  pasture 
more  tliau  100  oxen  and  500  sheep  on  the  undivided  part. 

3.  One  consul  every  year  should  be  a  plebeian. 

4.  A  "  Triumph  "  wiis  the  greatest  reward  ever  bestowe<l  upon  a 
Roman  general  by  the  gratitude  of  his  compatriots.  It  was  subject  to 
the  following  conditions:  The  victory  must  have  been  over  foreign  foes, 
for  it  was  reckoned  as  unseemly  to  exult  over  fellow-countrymen,  how- 
ever guilty  they  might  be— it  must  have  been  an  actual  extension  of 
Roman  territory,  not  the  recovery  of  something  lost— and  the  war  must 
be  completed,  so  that  the  army  was  withdrawn  from  the  field,  for  the 
soldiers  must  share  in  the  honor  paid  to  their  general.  Moreover,  the 
general  himself  must  be  of  consular,  or  at  lejust  prtetorian,  rank;  an  offi- 
cer of  lower  gnule  could  receive  an  ovation,  in  which  he  entered  the 
city  on  foot,  but  the  chariot  was  a  mark  of  kingly  state  permitted  only 
to  the  lilghest.  It  will  be  notice<l  that  the  ovation— though  much  mls- 
quote«l  in  our  day— was  only  a  secondary  honor;  it  took  its  name  from 
the  sheep  {ovus)  which  was  sacrificed  at  the  end  of  the  ceremony  in  the 


20  THE  ANCIENT    WORLD. 


lemple  of  the  Latin  Jupiter  on  tlie  Alban  Mount;  while  a  Triun;p!i 
was  ended  by  a  more  costly  sacrifice  of  oxen  in  the  temple  of  the  Ko- 
man  Jupiter  on  the  Capitoline  Hill. 

The  victorious  chief  must  wait  without  the  walls  until  the  senate 
decreed  him  the  honor  of  a  Triumph;  and  until  a  special  vote  of  the 
people  had  continued  his  military  command  within  the  limits  of  the 
city;  for,  without  this,  it  must  be  laid  down  on  entering  the  gates.  On 
the  appointed  day,  he  was  met  at  the  Triumphal  Gate  by  the  senate 
and  all  the  magistrates  in  their  most  magnificent  apparel.  Taking  the 
lead  of  the  procession,  they  were  tbllowed  by  a  band  of  trumpeters  and 
a  train  of  wagons  laden  with  the  spoils  of  the  conquered  countries 
(§230),  which  were  indicated  by  tablets  inscribed  in  large  letters  with 
their  names.  Models,  in  wood  or  ivory,  of  the  captured  cities;  pictures 
of  mountains,  rivers,  or  other  natural  features  of  the  region  subdued; 
loads  of  gold,  silver,  precious  stones,  vases,  statues;  and  whatever  was 
most  rich,  curious,  or  admirable  in  the  spoils  of  temples  and  palaces 
made  an  important  part  of  the  display  (see  note  2,  Ch.  XVI).  Then 
came  a  band  of  flute-players  preceding  the  white  oxen  destined  for  sac- 
rifice, the  horns  of  the  oxen  being  gilded  and  adorned  with  wreaths  of 
flowei-s  and  fillets  of  white  wool.  Elephants,  or  other  strange  animals 
from  the  conquered  countries,  were  followed  by  a  train  of  captive 
princes  or  generals,  with  their  families,  and  a  crowd  of  captives  of  in- 
ferior rank  loaded  with  fetters. 

Then  came  the  twelve  lictors  of  the  "Triumphator"  in  single  file, 
their  fasces  (note  1)  wreathed  with  laurel;  and  lastly,  the  general  him- 
self in  his  circular  chariot  drawn  by  four  white  horses.  His  robes  glis- 
tened with  golden  embroidery;  he  bore  a  scepter;  and  his  head  was 
crowned  with  Delphic  laurel.  A  slave  standing  behind  him  held 
a  diadem  of  Etruscan  gold;  he  was  instructed  to  whisper  from  time  to 
time  in  his  master's  ear,  "Remember  that  thou  art  but  a  man."  Be- 
hind the  general  rode  his  sons  and  lieutenants,  and  then  came  the  en- 
tire army — their  spears  adorned  with  laurel— wJio  either  chanted  hymns 
of  praise,  or  amused  themselves  and  the  bystanders  with  coarse  jokes 
and  doggerel  verses  at  their  general's  expense.  This  rude  license  of 
speech  wtis  thought  to  i^revent  the  injurious  effects  of  overmuch  flat- 
tery, which  the  Romans,  like  the  modern  Italians,  were  taught  especially 
to  dread.  All  the  people,  in  gala-dress,  thronged  the  streets,  and  every 
temple  and  shrine  were  adorned  with  flowers. 

As  a  terrible  contrast  to  the  joy  of  the  day,  just  as  the  procession  had 
nearly  finished  its  course  to  the  capital,  some  of  the  captured  chiefs  were 
led  aside  and  put  to  death.  That  the  noble  Pontius  suffered  this  fate, 
is  one  of  the  greatest  blots  upon  the  honor  of  Rome.  A  little  more  than 
a  century  later,  Jugurtha,  after  walking  in  chains  in  the  triumph  of 
Marius  (^220),  was  cast  into  the  lower  dungeon  of  the  same  Mamertine 
prison  to  perish  of  hunger.  The  execution  of  the  victims  having  been 
announced,  the  sacrifices  were  oflTered  in  the  temple  of  the  Capitoline 
Jupiter;  the  laurel  crown  of  the  general  was  placed  as  a  votive  ofTering  in 
the  lap  of  the  image;  a  magnificent  banquet  was  sei'ved;  and  the  "Tri- 
umphator" was  escorted  home  late  at  night  by  a  throng  of  citizens 
bearing  torches  and  pipes.  The  state  presented  him  with  a  site  for  a 
house,  and,  at  the  entrance  to  this  triumphal  mansion,  a  laurel-wreathed 
statue  of  its  founder  perpetuated  the  memory  of  his  glory  to  his  latest 
descendants. 

5.  Pyrrhus  greatly  admired  the  manly  virtues  of  the  Romans,  and, 
in  reviewing  his  prisoners,  is  said  to  have  exclaimed,  "If  I  had  soldiers 
like  these,  I  wovild  conquer  the  world."  Hoping  to  make  peace  with 
the  senate,  he  refused  to  ransom  or  exchange  the  multitude  of  captives 
whom  he  held,  but  he  allowed  them  all  to  return  to  Rome  for  their  winter 
holidays— the  Saturnalia— on  their  simple  promise  to  return  if  the  gov- 
ernment refused  a  treaty.    The  senate  refused,  and  every  man  returned. 

In  military  genius,  Pyrrhus  was  undoubtedly  the  greatest  leader  of 
his  age,  and  Hannibal  is  even  said  to  have  ranked  him  second  only 
to  Alexander  (see  p.  127,  note  3.)  Expelled  from  his  kingdom  at  the  age 
of  seventeen,  he  distinguished  himself  in  the  wars  of  Alexander's  gen- 
erals (^  167),  and,  in  a  few  years,  not  only  regained  his  own  dominion, 
but  conquered  all  Macedonia;  of  this,  however,  he  was  deprived  by  his 
treacherous  ally,  Lysimachus.  By  his  Italian  expedition  he  gained 
nothing  but  a  great  name  in  history. 


CHAPTER   XIV. 

ROMAN    KKPUHI.IC,   CONTINrKI) — ITNIC    WARS. 


J.'U4¥>S^SC 


Hannibal  Crossing  the  Alps. 

jAVING  conquered  Italy,  Rome  was  now  to 
come  into  collision  with  the  great  Republic 
■1/  of  Carthage,  on  the  opposite  coast  of  the 
Mediterranean.  The  island  of  Sicily  was  the  object  of 
dispute.  The  Romans,  like  the  Spartans,  despised  com- 
merce, and  had  few  ships,  their  wars  having  hitherto  been 
upon  land;  but  they  prepared,  with  great  spirit,  to  meet 
Carthage  upon  her  own  element.  A  Carthaginian  war- 
vessel,  wrecked  on  their  coast,  served  them  for  a  model; 
in  two  months  they  had  a  fleet  of  loo  ships,  and  in  their 
very  first   sea-fight   gained   a   decisive  victory.      A    second 

(121) 


122  THE   ANCIENT  WORLD. 


and  third  were  equally  successful,  and  the  consuls  now 
invaded  Africa,  laying  waste  the  rich  lands  about  Carthage 
with  fire  and  sword,  B.  C.  256. 

207.  One  half  the  victorious  army  returned  to  Rome 
on  the  approach  of  winter,  while  Reg'ulus,^  one  of  the 
consuls,  remained,  and,  for  a  time,  carried  all  before  him. 
Multitudes  of  towns  fell  into  his  power,  and  Carthage 
itself  might  have  been  starved  into  submission,  but  for 
the  arrival  of  Xanthip'pus,  a  Spartan  general,  and  an  army 
of  Greek  hirelings.  With  this  timely  aid,  the  Carthaginians 
wtere  at  length  able  to  defeat  and   capture    Regulus.     The 

fleet,   which  was    carrying    home    the    shattered 

remnant  of   the  Roman   force,  was  wrecked   in 

a  storm,  and  the  Sicilian  coast  was  strewn  with  the  remains 

of    260    ships    and    100,000    men.       Nevertheless,    Roman 

courage   never  wavered,  and  a   few   years   later,    Metel'lus 

gained  a  brilliant  victory  over  the  Carthaginians 

at  Panor'mus.     A  hundred  elephants  made  part 

of  the  triumphal  procession    which    attended  his  return  to 

Rome. 

208.  The  next  eight  years  were  full  of  disasters  to  Rome. 
Hamilcar  Barca,  father  of  the  great  Hannibal,  ravaged  the 
coasts  of  Italy,  and  there  was  no  Roman  leader  of  equal 
genius  to  oppose  him.  At  length  her  wealthy  citizens  ral- 
lied all  their  forces,  and  fitted  out  a  fleet  with  which  the 
consul  Luta'tius  gained  a  decisive  victory  among  the  ^gu'sae. 
The  exhausted  Carthaginians,  disheartened  by  this  reverse, 
now  agreed  to  surrender  Sicily  and  all  the  neighboring  isl- 
ands, pay  2000  talents  ($2,500,000),  and  release  all  Roman 
prisoners  without  ransom.  The  First  Punic  War  had  lasted 
nearly  24    years  (B.  C.   264-241). 

209.  In  the  interval  which  followed,  Rome  seized  Sar- 
dinia and  Corsica,  and,  by  a  three  years'  war,  conquered 
Cisalpine  Gaul.  The  latter  was  planted  with  Roman  colo- 
nies;  but  the   three    islands,   Sicily,    Sardinia,  and  Corsica, 


THE  PUNIC  WARS,  123 

were  organized  into  prmnnces — the  first  examples  of  the 
system  of  government  by  which  Rome  afterward  managed 
her  immense  foreign  possessions.  The  consuls,  on  com- 
pleting their  term  of  office,  divided  the  provinces  between 
them;  and  each  exercised,  in  his  own  province,  both  civil 
and  military  command.  One  tenth  of  the  whole  produce 
of  these  countries  went  as  tribute  to  Rome,  beside  a  duty 
of  one-twentieth  on  all  imports  and  exports.  I  he  fertile 
fields  of  Sicily  became  the  granariis  of  Rome,  while  the 
forests  of  Corsica  afforded  abuiulant  materials  for  her 
fleets. 

210,  If  Carthage  had  seemed  to  submit,  it  was  only  for 

a  time.     Her  great  general,  Ham'ilcar,- foreseeing  a  renewal 

of   the   war,    devoted    all    his    energy   to  the 

'  .  ,  ,  •       r     ,      1  /-        B.  c.  236-228. 

conquest   of  Spam,    and,    at    his    death,    left 

to   his   son-in-law,   Has'drubal,   the   task    of  improving   the 

resources   of    that    rich    country.     Hasdrubal    built   towns, 

fostered  trade  and  tillage,  drilled  the  natives  into  soldiers, 

and,  by  working   the  newly  found  silver-mines,  laid  up  an 

ample    treasure    for   the    coming   war.      Han'nibal,   son  of 

Hamilcar,  had  meanwhile  grown  to  manhood.     When  only 

nine   years  old,   he   had   sworn,  at   his   father's   command, 

an  oath  of  eternal  hatred  to  Rome;    and  a  youth  spent  in 

the  Spanish  wars  had  only  strengthened  this  feeling,  while 

it  developed  and  trained  his  wonderful  genius. 

211.  Placed  at  the  head  of  the  army,^  Hannibal  first 
made  sure  of  his  power  over  Spain,  and  then  deliberately 
sought  a  quarrel  with  Rome,  which  led  to  the  Second 
Punic  War.  The  Romans  expected  him  to  cross  the  sea 
to  the  western  coast  of  Italy;  but  Hannibal  surprised 
them  by  a  far  bolder  movement.  Crossing  the  Ebro  and 
the  Pyrenees,  with  an  army  of  90,000  foot,  12,000  horse, 
and  many  elephants,  he  marched  through  the  friendly 
tribes  of  southern  Gaul;  climbed  the  snowy  Alps,  fighting 
his  way  against   hosts  of  enemies,  as  well  as  the  mightier 


124  THE  ANCIENT    WORLD. 

forces  of  nature;  and  descended  upon  the  plain  of  the  Po, 
attended  by  scarcely  more  than  one  fourth  of  the  mighty 
army  with  which,  in  the  spring  of  218  B.  C,  he  had  set 
out  from  Carthagena. 

212.  The  Cisalpine  Gauls  hailed  him  as  a  deliverer; 
and  in  three  great  battles  he  routed  the  best  and  bravest 
of  the  Roman  soldiery.  Fa'bius  was  now  made  Dictator, 
with  unlimited  powers.  Seeing  the  impossibility  of  defeat- 
ing Hannibal  in  battle,  he  tried  to  weary  him  with  harass- 
ing marches,  cutting  off  his  stragglers  and  supply-trains 
while  refusing  to  fight.  But  the  Romans  murmured  at 
this  "Fabian  policy;"    and  the  consuls,  listening  at  length 

to  their  demands  for  a  battle,  led  a  great  army 
to  Cannae,  only  to  suffer  the  most  overwhelming 
defeat  that  Rome  ever  knew.  One  consul,  80  senators, 
and  nearly  50,000  men  lay  dead  upon  the  field.  All 
southern  Italy,  except  the  garrisoned  towns,  submitted  to 
Hannibal.  The  kings  of  Macedon  and  Syracuse  allied 
themselves  with  Carthage,  and  for  fourteen  years  Hannibal 
maintained  his  footing  in  the  peninsula. 

213.  The  two  Scip'ios,  Cne'ius  and  Pub'lius,  meanwhile 
managed  the  Roman  interests  in  Spain  with  great  skill, 
and  prevented  reinforcements  from  reaching  Hannibal. 
When,    at    last,    his    brother    came    to    his    relief,    he    was 

defeated  and  slain  near  the  Metau'rus.     Hanni- 

B.    C.    207.  1       1     1*      1    1  r  1  •  • 

bal  held  out  four  years  longer  m  the  mouritam-. 
fastness  of  Bruttium;  but  at  last  the  younger  Scipio,^  son 
of  Publius,  conducted  an  army  into  Africa,  and  the  Cartha- 
ginians were  compelled  to  recall  their  great  general.     The 

final  battle  was  fought  at  Za'ma;    the   power  of 
B.  C.  202.  ^      ,  °  I     .        \ 

Carthage   was   overthrown;    and,   m    the    peace 

which  followed,  she  was  compelled  to  surrender  Spain  and 

all   her   island   settlements,   with  her    fleets   and    elephants, 

and  to  engage,  beside  paying  a  yearly  tribute,  to  make  no 

war  without  the  j^ermission  of  Rome. 


MAP  No.V. 


GROWTH   OF   ROMAN    FREEDOM 


1.  The  "Good  Laws"  of  Servius  Tullius    .        .    B.  C.  578-534- 

2.  Expulsion  of  Kings;  two  Praetors  elected     .         .510. 

3.  Secession  of  Plebeians ;   Tribunes  of  the  People 

elected 494- 

4.  First  Agrarian  Law  divides  State  Lands  486. 
$.  PuBLiLiAN  Law  gives  Plebeians  the  right  to  elect 

their  own  Magistrates 471* 

6.  Laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables  ;    Consuls  chosen 

by  the  whole  people 449« 

7.  Right  of  Intermarriage  between  Patricians  and 

Plebeians 444. 

8.  Licinian  Laws  relieve  the  poverty  and  distress 

which  follow  the  Gallic  Invasion,  by  abating 
usury,  re-dividing  public  lands,  and  admitting 
one  Plebeian  Consul 366. 

9.  Hortensian  Laws  distribute  the  Sabine  Lands  286. 
10.  Agrarian  Laws  of  Tiberius  and  Caius  Gracchus 

lighten  burdens  of  soldiers  and  common  peo- 
ple, and  favor  plebeian  merchants  and  bankers  1 33-121. 


INCREASE  OF  ROMAN  TERRITORY 


Roma  Quadrata  on  the  Palatine  Mount  .    B.  C 

The   "  Seven   Hills,"   inclosed  by   wall  of  Servius 

Tullius 

Conquest  of  Latium 

the  iEquian  lands      .... 

the  Samnites  and  Sabines 

Umbria   and   Etruria ;    Italian    Peninsula 
subject  to  Rome 

Sicily,  Sardinia,  and  Corsica 

Carthaginian  possessions  in  Spain     . 

Cisalpine  Gaul 

Macedonia  and  Greece 

Carthaginian  possessions  in  Africa    . 

Spain,  completed        .... 
Pergamus  becomes  the  Roman  "  Province  of  Asia  " 
Bithynia  conquered,  74;  Cilicia,  67,  66;  Syria 
Paphlagonia  and  Palestine,  63  ;  Pontus 
Conquest  of  Gaul  completed  by  Caesar 
Egypt  becomes  a  Roman  province 


Conquest  of  Britain 


(B.C. 
(A.  D. 


Dacia  (Roumania  and  Transylvania) 
Mesopotamia 


753- 

578-534 
338. 
304. 
290. 

266. 

241-238. 

206. 

201-191. 

168-146. 

146. 

133- 
130. 

65- 
62. 

58-51. 

30. 

55- 

79- 

106. 

115. 


DESTRUCTION  OF  CARTHAGE.  125 


214.  Scipio,  now  called  Africa'nus,  in  honor  of  his  vic- 
tory, was  welcomed  at  Komc  with  1  iniL^nificcnt  triumph 
(§207,  note).  Rome  rewarded  her  veteran  soldiers  with  the 
confiscated  lands  of  the  Italian  nations  who  had  aided 
Hannibal;  then  turned  her  attention  to  the  East,  where 
Antiochus  the  Great  (J5170)  had  welcomed  the  great 
Carthaginian  to  his  court,  and  seemed  to  be  challenging 
a  contest.  The  battle  of  Magnesia,  B.  C.  190,  destroyed 
his  hopes,  and  made  the  opening  scene  of  Roman  conquests 
in  Asia.  A  war  with  Macedon  ended  in  the  captivity  of 
the  last  of  her  kings  (§177),  and  Rome  was  now  acknowl- 
edged as  the  leading  power  in  the  whole  civilized  world. 

215.  Carthage,  her  disarmed  and  humbled  victim,  was 
only  awaiting  her  doom.  Ca'to,^the  sternest  of  the  Roman 
statesmen,  never  ended  a  speech  in  the  Senate  without 
the  words,  "Carthage  must  be  destroyed."  To  prolong 
their  existence,  the  Carthaginians  submitted  to  the  most 
unreasonable  demands;  but,  when  ordered  to  destroy  their 
beloved  city  and  remove  to  a  new  site  away  from  the 
sea,  they  refused  with  one  voice.  Then  began  a  four-years' 
war,  in  which  the  sole  operation  was  the  siege  and  defense 
of  Carthage.  Night  and  day  every  man,  woman,  and  child 
toiled  at  the  defenses  of  the  city.  A  new  fleet  was  built 
in  the  blockaded  port,  and  a  channel  was  cut  through  the 
land  to  enable  it  to  reach  the  sea.  Two  thousand  shields 
or  weapons  were  made  every  day  in  the  arsenal,  and  the 
women  gave  their  long  hair  for  bowstrings  When  at  last 
the  Romans  forced  an  entrance  to  the  city,  they  had  to 
fight  their  way,  house  by  house  and  street  by  street.  Fires 
were  kindled  in  all  directions;  and  when,  after  17  days, 
the  flames  were  arrested,  only  heaps  of  ashes  remained  of 
the  homes  of  700,000  human  beings. 

216.  The  lands  of  Carthage  became  the  Roman  **  Prov- 
ince of  Africa."  The  same  year  Corinth,  also,  was  destroyed 
(§178),  and   Greece   became   the   **  Province  of  Achaia." 


126  THE   ANCIENT    WORLD. 

War  was  still  going  on  in  Spain,^  where  the  town  of  Nu- 
mantia  withstood  a  long  siege  with  heroic  courage.  It 
was  starved  into  surrender,  133  B.  C;  and  at  length  the 
whole  peninsula,  except  the  Asturias,  submitted,  and  was 
divided  into  three  provinces.  Hither  and  Farther  Spain, 
and  Lusitania,  now  Portugal.  All  southern  Europe,  with 
an  important  part  of  Africa,  was  now  subject  to  Rome; 
and  in  Egypt  and  Asia  Minor  many  client-states  owned 
her  power  and  begged  her  protection.  The  relation  of 
Rome  to  Egypt,  Pergamus,  Judaea,  etc.,  was  much  like 
that  of  a  proud  patrician  to  his  dependents  whom  he  fed 
and  domineered  over,  while  permitting  no  other  person  to 
injure  them.     See  Ch.   XII,  note  2. 

Trace,  on  Map  5,  the  march  of  Hannibal  from  Spain.  Point 
out  Cannae,  the  Metaurus,  Magnesia,  Carthage,  Tunis,  Panormus 
(now  Palermo),  Corsica,  Sardinia,  Sicily. 

Mommsen  is  the  best  authority  for  this  and  the  following  periods. 
Arnold's  History  of  Rome  was,  unhappily,  left  unfinished  in  the 
midst  of  the  events  described  in  this  chapter. 

NOTES. 

1.  Hegulus  was  sent  to  Rome  in  company  with  the  Carthaginian 
embassadors  who  were  to  otfer  terms  of  peace.  He  was  to  return  if  the 
terms  were  rejected,  and  the  inhuman  cruelty  of  the  Carthaginians  (§83) 
in  dealing  with  their  prisoners,  was  well  known.  Nevertheless,  Regu- 
lus  strongly  urged  the  senate  not  to  make  peace,  and  reluctantly  they 
yielded  to  his  arguments,  for  they  would  gladly  have  purchased  his  life 
by  some  concession,  tliough,  of  course,  no  one  dreamed  of  his  violating 
his  promise  to  return.  He  went  to  Carthage,  and  suffered,  it  is  said,  a 
most  painful  death  at  the  hands  of  his  disappointed  captors. 

2.  Hamilcar  had  commanded  in  Sicily  during  the  First  Punic  War, 
and  defended  hinciself  successfully  for  five  years  against  the  Romans. 
He  was  the  leader  of  the  popular  party  in  Carthage,  where,  in  the  in- 
terval between  the  two  wars,  he  put  down  a  formidable  revolt  of  the 
mercenary  troops. 

"Before  departing  for  Spain,  the  general  performed  a  solemn  sacri- 
fice to  propitiate  the  gods  for  the  success  of  his  enterprise.  The  omens 
were  declared  favorable.  Hamilcar  had  poured  the  libation  on  the 
victim,  which  was  duly  ofTered  on  the  altar,  when,  on  a  sudden,  he 
desired  all  his  officers  and  the  ministers  of  the  sacrifice  to  step  aside 
to  a  little  distance,  and  then  called  his  son  Hannibal.  Hannibal,  a  boy 
of  nine  years  old,  went  up  to  his  father,  and  Hamilcar  asked  him  kindly 
if  he  would  like  to  go  with  him  to  the  war.  The  boy  eagerly  caught  at 
the  otter,  and,  with  a  child's  earnestness,  implored  his  father  to  take 
him.  Then  Hamilcar  took  him  by  the  hand  and  led  him  up  to  the  al- 
tar, and  bade  him,  if  he  wished  to  follow  his  father,  lay  his  hand  upon 
the  sacrifice  and  swear  that  he   would  never  be  the  friend  of  the  Ro- 


NOTES,  127 


niaiiN.  Hannibal  swore,  and  nover  to  hl8  lnt«Kt  hour  forgot  IiIh  vow. 
He  wont  forth  dovotod  to  his  rountry'K  rcmIh,  ««  the  ammlntcd  enemy 
and  destn>yer  of  th«Mr  onenilos;  and  the  thonKht  of  filN  hi^h  calling 
dwelt  ever  on  his  mind.  (liri'«'tln«  and  eonrentnitInK  the  snirit  and  en- 
thusiasm «)f  his  youtlj,  an«l  mingling  wltli  it  tlie  foreca-st,  the  ^reat  pur- 
iMxses,  and  the  deep  and  unwavering  resolution  of  the  maturest  nuiii- 
IukmI. 

"The  story  of  his  solemn  vow  was  told  by  Hannil)al  himself,  many 
years  afterwards,  to  Antiochus,  kinn  of  Syria  (see  i;211i;  hut,  at  the  time. 
It  wjis  heard  by  no  otiier  ears  than  his  father's;  and,  when  he  salle<l 
with  llamllcar  to  Spain,  none  knew  that  he  went  witli  atiy  feelings 
bi'yond  the  common,  llgljt-hearted  curiosity  of  a  child.  JUit  the  Romans 
viewed  Hauillcars  expedition  with  alarm,  and  were  probably  well 
aware  that  he  would  brook  his  country's  humiliation  only  so  long  as 
he  was  unable  to  avenge  it."— .ir/ioW*  lliMory  0/  Iionie,pp.-iiiO,-m. 

Hamllcar  was  killed  in  battle  B.  C.  229. 

3.  Hannibal  was  probably  born  B.  C.  247,  and  was  scarcely  26  years 
of  age,  when,  on  the  death  of  his  brother-ln  law,  Hasdrubal,  tfie  will  of 
the  soldiei-s,  continued  by  the  government  In  Cartluige,  placed  him  at 
the  hojul  of  the  forces  in  Spain.  In  two  campaigns  he  sulxlued  the 
Spanish  tril)es  that  were  hostile  to  his  rule;  then,  in  the  spring  of  219 
B.  C\,  laid  sles^o  to  Sigiintum,  a  city  in  alliance  with  Home.  Its  resist- 
ance WJis  long  and  fJespenite,  but  in  eight  months  Hannibal  was  mjister 
of  the  place.  His  nuirch  from  Carthagena  to  Italy  occupied  Ave  months, 
of  which  only  tifteen  days  were  spent  in  passing  the  Alps.  On  the  left 
bank  of  the  Trebla,  he  met  a  Roman  army  of  greatly  superior  numbers 
to  his  own,  and  routed  it  with  heavy  loss.  All  the  (lauls  now  declared 
in  his  favor,  and  he  wintered  In  security  while  tilling  up  his  broken 
ranks  with  recruits  that  pressed  in  from  every  side.  His  second  en- 
counter with  tlie  Romans  was  in  a  narrow  pass  between  Lake  Thrasy- 
moinis  and  a  rocky  declivity  of  the  Apennines.  Here  his  victory  was 
more  cDinplete  than  before.  Tliousands  of  Romans,  including  the  Con- 
sul Flaininius,  fell  by  the  sword*  thousands  perished  in  the  lake,  and 
l.'),itiK)  remained  jvs  prisoners  in  Hannibal's  camps.  Of  these,  he  dis- 
missod  all  the  Italian  allies,  without  ransom,  hoping  to  separate  their 
jicople  from  Roman  influence.  His  third  great  bittle  wjis  at  Cannw; 
and  if,  after  his  victory,  he  had  marched  directly  upon  Rome,  it  seems 
probable  that  he  might  have  put  a  triumphant  end  to  the  war.  But  he 
waited  for  reinforcements  which  never  came,  and  it  Is  said  that  his 
veterans  were  rendered  less  warlike  by  the  luxury  of  their  winter  in 
Capua.  Hannlbars  energy  never  flagged;  appearing  suddenly  in  the 
most  unexpected  quarters,  he  bewildered  the  Romans  by  tlie  swiftness 
of  his  movementt;;  and  not  only  throughout  Italy,  but  in  Macedonia, 
Sicily,  and  Africa,  he  was  the  soul  of  the  great  contest. 

When,  after  the  battle  of  Zama,  Hannibal  saw  all  his  labor  of  twenty 
years  set  at  naught,  he  only  set  himself  to  flnd  means  of  renewing  hos- 
tilities with  Rome.  As  chief  magistrate  of  Carthage,  he  effected  reforms 
In  the  flnances  and  other  depariments  of  the  government;  but,  in  so 
doing,  he  enrtiged  the  opposite  party,  and  wa.s  at  length  compelled  to 
flee  from  his  native  city.  He  was  received  with  great  honor  by  Anti- 
ochus III.,  of  Syria,  who  was  glad  to  employ  him  as  a  commander,  but 
fjiiled  to  profit  by  liis  advice.  One  condition  demanded  by  the  Romans 
in  making  peace  with  Antiochus,  B.  C,  190,  was  the  surrender  of  Hanni- 
bal ;  but  the  great  general  was  warned  in  time,  and  took  refuge  with  the 
king  of  Bithynia.  Seven  years  later,  the  Romans  sent  an  embassy  to 
demand  him,  and,  seeing  that  escape  was  hopeless,  he  put  an  end  to 
his  life  by  poison. 

Plutarch  says  that  Hannibal  and  Scipio  once  met  at  the  court  of  An- 
tiochus in  Ephesus,  and  had  a  friendly  discussion  concerning  military 
rank.  Hannibal  declared  that  Alexander  was  the  greatest  {^[cneral  the 
world  had  ever  seen,  Pyrrhus  the  second,  and  himself  the  third.  Sdplo 
smiled  and  said,  "But  in  what  rank  would  you  have  placed  yourself 
if  you  hsul  conquered  me?"  "O  Scipio,"  was  the  reply,  "then  I  would 
have  rankel  myself  not  third,  but  fli-st." 

4.  To  the  Scipios  more  than  to  any  other  family  Rome  is  said  to 
have  been  indebted  for  her  conquest  of  the  whole  Mediterranean  world. 
Four  of  the  family  bore  the  surname  AHnttcus,  on  account  of  their  sue- 


128  THE  ANCIENT   WORLD. 


cesses  in  the  East;  and  an  equal  number,  that  of  Africanus;  but  the  con- 
queror of  Hannibal  Is  regarded  as  the  greatest  man  Kome  ever  pi-oduced, 
with  the  exception  of  Julius  Csesar.  He  never  leugaged  in  any  impor- 
tant business  without  first  preparing  his  mind  by  prayer  in  ttie  temple 
on  the  Capitoline  Mount.  At  the  age  of  24  (B.  C.  210),  he  was  appointed 
to  the  command  of  the  Roman  forces  in  Spain,  and  distinguislied  him- 
self by  the  capture  of  Carthagena  and  all  its  stores  of  arms  and  food. 
The  next  year  he  gained  a  brilliant  victory  over  Hasdrubal,  the  brother 
of  Hannibal,  and,  in  a  few  years,  less  by  fighting  than  by  his  personal 
influence,  he  had  won  all  Spain  to  obedience  to  Rome.  His  energy  and 
courage  were  fully  equaled  by  his  generosity  and  courtesy  toward  all 
who  fell  into  his  power;  and  the  Spanish  people  even  wished  to  make 
him  their  king.  Returning  to  Italy,  he  was  unanimously  chosen  consul 
for  the  year  205  B.  C,  and  earnestly  desired  to  carry  the  war  into  Africa; 
but  the  senate,  jealous  of  the  successes  of  so  young  a  general,  refused 
him  an  army.  They  could  not,  however,  prevent  his  being  joined  by 
volunteers,  and  so  many  young  men  from  the  allied  towns  flocked  to 
his  standard,  that  he  soon  had  a  great  force,  both  on  land  and  sea. 
His  success  in  Africa  has  been  told  in  the  text.  On  his  return  to  Italy, 
in  201  B.  C,  the  delight  of  the  people  at  their  deliverance  from  the 
long  terror  in  which  Hannibal  had  held  tliem,  broke  forth  in  extrava- 
gant demonstrations.  Tbey  would  even  have  made  him  consul  and 
dictator  for  life,  and  would  have  placed  his  statue  in  the  temple  of  the 
Capitoline  Jupitei*.  But  Scipio  knew  the  jealousy  of  the  senate,  and  re- 
fused these  marks  of  honor,  only  accepting  tlie  surname  A/riccwus  in 
memory  of  his  chief  victory.  He  afterwards  distinguished  himself  both 
in  war  and  negotiations  against  Antiochus  III.,  at  whose  court  he  is 
said  to  have  met  Hannibal  (see  note  3).  These  two  men  were  noble 
enough  to  recognize  each  other's  greatness,  and  Scipio  was  the  only 
Roman  senator  who  opposed  the  mean  persecutions  by  which  his  coun- 
trymen showed  their  fear  of  the  great  Carthaginian.  He  is  said  to 
have  died  in  the  same  year  as  Hannibal  and  Philopoemen,  B.  C.  183. 

4.  Cato  the  Censor,  or  the  Elder,  was  of  plebeian  family,  and  was 
born  at  Tusculum,  among  the  Sabine  hills,  B.  C.  234.  In  his  youth  he 
served  against  Hannibal,  and  to  the  end  of  his  life  he  was  the  most  re- 
lentless foe  of  Carthage.  In  the  intervals  of  war  he  worked  on  his  farm, 
and,  though  he  afterwards  became  celebrated  as  an  orator  in  Rome,  he 
always  prided  himself  on  retaining  the  plain  and  simple  habits  of  his 
boyhood.  His  talents  were  first  recognized  while  he  was  pleading  the 
causes  of  his  poorer  neighbors  in  the  courts.  He  was  invited  to  Rome, 
and  soon  rose  high  in  otfice.  He  bitterly  opposed  the  Greek  tastes  and 
luxurious  manners,  which,  with  increasing  wealth,  had  become  fash- 
ionable among  his  countrymen;  and,  when  elected  Censor  {i.  e.,  keeper 
of  the  public  morals)  in  184  B.  C,  his  attempt  to  force  his  own  sober  and 
frugal  style  of  living  upon  the  patricians,  occasioned  great  discontent. 
Still,  he  was  generally  respected  as  a  model  of  old-fashioned  Roman 
virtue. 

His  great-grandson,  "  Cato  the  Younger,"  was  one  of  the  most  deter- 
mined opponents  of  Caesar,  and  killed  himself  when  opposition  proved 
to  be  hopeless. 

6.  "  Spain  was  the  only  one  of  the  great  countries  of  Europe  where 
the  mass  of  the  people  Avere  not  of  the  Aryan  stock  (see  note  1,  p.  16). 
The  greater  part  of  the  land  was  still  held  by  the  Iberians,  as  a  small 
part  is  even  now  by  their  descendants,  the  Basques.  But,  in  the  central 
part  of  the  peninsula,  Celtic  tribes  had  pressed  in,  and  we  have  seen 
that  there  were  some  Phoenician  colonies  in  the  south,  and  some  Greek 
colonies  on  the  east  coast.  In  the  time  between  the  First  and  Second 
Punic  Wars,  Hamilcar,  Hasdrubal,  and  Hannibal  had  won  all  Spain 
for  Carthage.  But  during  the  Second  Punic  War,  between  the  years  211 
and  206,  the  Carthaginian  territories  in  Spain  were  all  won  for  Rome 
by  the  Scipios.  Spain  has  always  been  a  hard  country  to  conquer,  and 
the  Romans  had  constant  wars  with  the  native  tribes.  Still  we  may 
look  on  the  Roman  dominion  in  Spain  as  finally  established  in  B.C. 
133,  when  the  younger  Scipio  took  Numantia.  From  this  time  all  Spain 
was  a  Roman  province,  except  some  of  tlie  mountainous  parts  in  the 
north,  where  native  tribes  still  remained  free.^^  —  Freeman's  ^^  General 
Sketch,"  pp.  68,  69. 


CHAPTER    XV. 


ROMAN     REPUBLIC,    CONTINUED  — CIVIL   WARS. 


Roman  Soldier. 


CENTURY  of  internal  conflict  ends 
the  history  of  the  Roman  Republic. 
The  strife  between  patricians  and 
plebeians  was  long  ago  ended;  but  in 
its  place  had  arisen  a  grinding,  igno- 
ble jealousy  between  the  rich  and  the 
poor.  Rome  was  a  '  *  commonwealth 
of  millionaires  and  beggars."  Many 
rich  proprietors  held  four  times  the 
amount  of  public  lands  to  which  the 
law  entitled  them ;  and,  instead  of  hir- 
ing free  labor,  preferred  to  cultivate 
by  means  of  gangs  of  slaves  who  could 
be  bought  cheap  after  every  Roman 
victory.  These  slaves,  often  the 
equals  of  their  masters  but  for  misfortune  in  war, — strong, 
intelligent,  and  trained  to  the  use  of  arms — constituted  one 
of  the  greatest  dangers  to  which  Rome  was  now  exposed. 

218.  In  the  year  133,  B.  C,  Tibe'rius  Grac'chus,^  Tribune 
of  the  People,  brought  forward  a  bill  for  a  re-distribution 
of  the  state  lands,  limiting  the  patricians,  as  before,  to  500 
j'ugera  (about  312  acres),  and  dividing  the  remainder  into 
homesteads  for  the  poor.  His  fellow-tribune,  Octa'vius, 
vetoed  the  bill;  but  Tiberius  moved  the  people  to  depose 
him,  and  the  Agrarian  Law  was  passed.  Other  propositions 
followed,  designed  to  raise  up  a  middle-class  of  peasants, 
which  would  prevent  collision  between  the  two  extremes 
of  society.  But  the  wrath  of  the  wealthy  class  was  now 
excited,  and  Tiberius  was  murdered  on  the  steps  of  the 
Capitol. 

Hisi.-9  (129) 


I30  THE  ANCIENT  WORLD. 


219.  His  younger  and  yet  abler  brother,^  Ca'ius  Grac'- 
chus,  became  Tribune  of  the  People,  B.  C.  124.  He 
provided  for  the  hungry  crowd  by  forming  new  colonies, 
not  only  in  Italy,  but  beyond  the  seas,  and  by  building 
immense  granaries  at  Rome,  whence  the  government  dealt 
out  wheat  at  less  than  half  price  to  all  who  chose  to  apply 
for  it.  The  first  of  these  measures  was  wise  and  benef- 
icent; the  second  was  very  dangerous,  for  it  drew  into* 
Rome  a  thrifdess  crowd  from  all  the  country,  and  there 
were  never  wanting  leaders  whose  wicked  ambition  made 
use  of  these  people  for  their  own  ends — sometimes  for  the 
destruction  of  the  state.  Caius  Gracchus  lost  his  life  in  a 
popular  tumult;  250  of  his  followers  fell  with  him,  and 
3000  were  strangled  in  prison  by  order  of  the  Senate.* 

220.  Roman  virtue,  if  not  dead,  was  \fi  a  fatal   decline. 

A  war  with  Jugur'tha — an  African  prince, 
■  "°"^°9'  ^jjQ  }^^^  murdered  two  heirs  to  the  kingdom 
of  Numidia  in  order  to  seat  himself  on  its  throne — brought 
to  light  the  disgraceful  fact  that  even  senators  and  consuls 
would  sell  themselves  for  gold.  One  general  made  a  dis- 
honorable peace,  and  another,  with  his  whole  army,  passed 
under  the  yoke  (§201).  At  this  humiliating  crisis,  when 
neither  great  wealth  nor  noble  birth  escaped  reproach 
Caius  Ma'rius,  a  Latin  farmer's  son,  was  made  consul  and 
entrusted  with  the  war  in  Africa.  Among  his  officers  was 
Corne'lius  SuHa,  a  young  patrician,  of  dissolute  character, 


*The  noble  character  of  the  Gracchi  was  due,  in  great  measure, 
to  their  mother,  Cornelia,  a  daughter  of  Scipio  Africanus.  Their 
father  died  when  they  were  very  young,  and  Cornelia,  refusing  all 
the  lures  of  ambition  —  among  others  a  royal  crown  —  devoted  her- 
self to  the  training  of  her  boys.  She  lived  to  see  both  of  their 
young  lives  sacrificed  for  the  good  of  their  country ;  and,  though 
the  Senate  forbade  her  to  mourn  for  them,  a  grateful  people  after- 
wards placed  upon  her  tomb  the  proudest  of  inscriptions:  ^'■Cornelia, 
the  Mother  of  the   GracchV 


AfARIUS  AND  SULLA.  I31 

but  great  ability,  to  whose  tact  and  bravery  the  capture  of 
Jugurtha  was  due.  That  wily  prince  was  starved  to  death 
in  a  Roman  dungeon,  B.  C.  106. 

221.  Marius,  in  violation  of  the  law,  was  reelected  to  the 
consulship  five  successive  years.  Italy  was  trembling  at  the 
approach  of  two  great  hordes  of  barbarians  from  beyond 
the  Danube,  who  had  destroyed  a  Roman  army  of  80,000 
men  at  Arausio,  on  the  Rhone,  and  now  threatened  the 
peninsula.  The  Teutones  were  to  enter  Italy  from  Roman 
Gaul,  while  the  Cimbri  were  to  pass  through  Switzerland 
and  descend  upon  the  Lombard  i)lain  to  the  eastward. 
Marius  and  Sulla  hastened  to  meet  them,  and 

gained  a  victory  at  Aix,   which   ended    in   the 
total   destruction   of  the   Teutones.      The   next   spring   the 
Cimbri   were   defeated   at   Vercellae,    and    60,000    captives 
were  sent  to  the  slave-markets  of  Rome. 

222.  The  danger  arising  from  so  numerous  and  warlike 
a  slave-class  (§  217)  was  already  felt  in  Sicily.  In  the 
First  Servile  War  (B.  C.  134-132),  200,000  rebels  were 
in  arms;  and  the  Second,  which  broke  out  B.  C.  102,  taxed 
for  three  years  the  best  Roman  generals.  It  was  suppressed 
B.  C.  99;  but  the  masters  did  not  soon  forget  their  terror. 

223.  Another  peril  threatened  Rome  from  her  Italian 
allies,  who,  disappointed  in  the  hope  of  full  *' Roman 
rights,"  which  Caius  Gracchus  had  wished  to  give  them, 
formed  a  federal  Republic  by  themselves,  and  defeated  sev- 
eral armies  which  were  sent  to  subdue  them.  Rome  gained 
peace  only  by  yielding  to  the  ju'st  demands  of  the  states. 
All  the  Italians  were  admitted  to  full  Roman  citizenship; 
the  ''Latin  right"  (§  205)  being  reserved  for  Spaniards  and 
other  provincials — and  so  the  "Social  War"  was  ended. 

224.  A  furious  contest,  which  now  arose  between  Marius 
and  Sulla  for  the  command  in  a  war  against  Pontus,^  ended 
by  making  Sulla  master  of  Rome  and  driving  Marius  into 


132  THE   ANCIENT    WORLD. 

exile.  But  when  Sulla  had  departed  for  the  East,  Marius 
returned.  By  capturing  the  corn-fleets  from  Sicily  and 
Africa,  he  starved  Rome  into  surrender,  and 
proceeded  to  massacre  all  who  were  opposed  to 
him.  But  he  died  on  the  eighteenth  day  of  his  seventh 
consulship,  and  Sulla,  returning  with  his  victorious  army, 
soon  turned  the  tables. 

225.  In  five  campaigns  he  had  brought  the  Pontic  War 
to  a  triumphant  conclusion,  and  had  recovered  the  revolted 
provinces  of  Achaia,  Macedonia,  and  Asia.  He  came  laden 
with  treasure  and  followed  by  a  devotedly  attached  soldiery, 

with  whom  he  many  times  defeated  the  ' '  Mari- 
ans"  and  established  a  new  Reign  of  Terror  at 

Rome.     Six  thousand  soldiers  were  massacred  by  his  order; 

new  ''proscription-lists"  were  published  every  day,  and  the 

streets  flowed  with  blood. 

226.  Sulla  was  made  Dictator,  with  unlimited  power; 
and  he  now  tried,  with  some  show  of  reason,  to  restore  at 
once  the  simple  virtues  and  the  patrician  rule  which  had 
belonged  to  the  early  days  of  the  Republic.  But,  though 
aristocratic  government  was  restored  for  a  time,  Roman 
virtue  was  dead;  and  Rome,  enslaved  by  luxury,  could  no 
longer  hope  to  escape  an  outward  servitude,  whenever  her 
master  should  appear.  At  the  end  of  three  years,  Sulla 
suddenly  resigned  his  power  and  retired  to  Puteoli,  where 
he  died,  B.  C.  78. 

227.  The  Romans,  though  rich  and  luxurious,  were 
hardly  less  brutal  than  the  wolves  whom  tradition  made 
their  foster-brothers.  Their  favorite  sport  was  to  see  the 
bravest  of  their  captives  fight  with  wild  beasts,  or  butcher 
each   other   in   the   arena,    ''to   make   a   Roman   holiday." 

One  of  these    "gladiators,"   named   Spar'tacus, 

'  ^^'  moved  his  comrades  to  revolt;  they  were  joined 

by  enslaved   herdsmen   from   the   mountains,   so   that  their 

number  rose,  the  first  year,  to  40,000,  and  the  second,  to 


VICTORIES  OF  POMPEY.  1 33 

100,000  men.  For  two  years  they  defeated  all  the  armies 
of  Rome,  and  convulsed  all  Italy  with  terror ;  but  jealousy 
divided  their  forces ;  Spartacus  was  defeated  and  slain  by 
Cras'sus,  and  the  remnant  of  his  followers,  attempting  to 
escape  northward,  were  met  and  destroyed  by  Pom'pey. 

228.  This  general  had  been  a  favorite  lieutenant  of 
Sulla ;  and  he  had  distinguished  himself  by  conquering  the 
remnant    of    the    Marian    party    in    Africa  and 

B  C    67 

Spain.  He  now  received  the  consulship  with 
Crassus.  After  its  expiration  he  rendered  yet  more  bril- 
liant services  by  sweeping  the  Mediterranean  of  Cilician 
pirates,  who  were  ravaging  all  its  coasts;  by  ending  the 
wars  with  Pontus  and  placing  that  country,  as  well  as 
Bithynia  and  Syria,  under  Roman  rule.  He  captured  Jeru- 
salem by  a  three  months'  siege,  B.  C.  63,  and  established 
Hyrca'nus  as  High  Priest  and  ruler  of  the  people. 

229.  Rome,  meanwhile,  barely  escaped  ruin  from  the 
corrupt  elements  within  her  borders.  Cat'iline,  a  dissolute 
nobleman,  plotted  with  comrades  like  himself  to  murder  the 
consuls,  overthrow  the  government,  and  assume  control  of 
affairs.      Plans  were   laid  with  great   skill   and 

secrecy,   and  the  wicked  plot  seemed  likely  to  •    •   3- 

succeed;  but,  happily,  it  became  known  in  time  to  Cic'ero, 
the  great  lawyer  and  orator,  who  was  then  consul,  and  by 
his  prompt  measures  it  was  brought  to  naught.  Catiline 
fell,  fighting  at  the  head  of  his  legions,  and  most  of  his 
accomplices  were  put  to  death.  Cicero  was  rewarded  by 
the  unbounded  gratitude  of  his  fellow-citizens,  and  by  the 
title,  ''Father  of  his  Country." 

230.  Pompey  might  now  have  been  master  of  the  Roman 
world;  but,  to  avoid  exciting  alarm,  he  disbanded  his  army 
as  soon  as  he  set  foot  in  Italy,  and  journeyed  privately  to 
Rome.  In  the  triumph  (§  207,  note)  decreed  him  by  the 
Senate,  he  was  declared  to  have  conquered  22  kings  and 
12,000,000  of  people,  and  to  have  almost  doubled  the  rev- 


134  THE  ANCIENT  WORLD. 

enues  of  Rome.  Nevertheless,  the  aristocracy,  who  had 
opposed  his  appointment  in  Asia,  now  refused  to  ratify  his 
acts,  or  to  give  lands  to  his  veteran  soldiers.  Pompey, 
though  by  birth  and  taste  an  aristocrat,  had  to  ally  himself 
with  Ju'lius  Cae'sar,  the  rising  leader  of  the  Marian  party, 
in  order  to  fulfill  his  pledges  to  his  troops. 

231.  Crassus,  on  account  of  his  great  wealth,  was  ad- 
mitted as  a  partner  in   their  plans;   and   the  three  formed 

the  First  Triumvirate,  which  for  several  years 
ruled  the  Roman  world.  It  was  not  a  magis- 
tracy, but  a  private  agreement  —  what,  in  modern  times, 
would  be  called  a  "Ring."  Caesar  was  made  consul,  and, 
by  dividing  the  rich  Campanian  fields  among  the  poorer 
citizens,  satisfied  the  claims  of  Pompey's  veterans.  At  the 
end  of  his  term  he  chose  the  government  of  Gaul  (§  216) 
—  the  poorest  and  most  turbulent  of  all  the  provinces. 

232.  Pompey  and  Crassus  became  consuls.  When  their 
year  was  out,  Pompey  went  to  Spain,  and  Crassus  under- 
took a  war  with  Parthia — now  a  vast  empire  reaching 
westward  to  the  Euphrates — in  the  hope  of  increasing 
his  wealth  by  the  plunder  of  the  Asiatic  cities.  But  he 
suffered  an  overwhelming  defeat  near  Car'rhae,  and  was 
treacherously  murdered  by  a  Parthian  officer,  B.  C.  53. 

233.  By  swiftness,  energy,  and  good  management,  Caesar 
subdued  the  Gauls  in  eight  campaigns,  beside  invading 
Britain  and  Germany.  In  choosing  the  most  difficult  of  the 
provincial  governments,  he  had  especially  wished  to  train 
an  army  which  would  enable  him  to  carry  forward  the  great 
scheme  which  he  was  maturing.  He  perceived  that  the 
mere  city-government  which  had  sufficed  for  Rome  in  her 
poorer  days,  was  unfit  for  the  almost  world-wide  dominion 
which  she  had  now  attained.  He  wished  to  civilize  western 
Europe,  give  equal  rights  of  Roman  citizenship  to  all  the 
provinces,  and  make  one  compact  Empire  out  of  so  many 
scattered  nationalities. 


C^SAR   DICTATOR.  135 

234.  Poinpey's  friendship  was  now  turned  into  jealousy 
and  hatred,  and  with  many  powerful  men  at  Rome  he 
was  plotting  Cajsar's  destruction.  The  Senate  ordered  the 
whole  army  in  Ciaul  to  be  disbanded  on  a  certain  day. 
Cjesar's  resolution  was  quickly  taken.     Crossing 

the   little   river   Ru'bicon,   which    separated   his  '  '*^' 

province  from  Italy,  he  marched  with  his  devoted  legions 
upon  Rome.  Pompey  retired  into  Greece;  and  the  nobles 
following  him  organized  a  new  Senate  at  Thessalonica. 

235.  Pompey  was  master  of  Spain,  Africa,  and  the  East- 
ern provinces,  while  Caesar  had  only  Italy,  Illyricum,  and 
Gaul ;  but  the  wonderful  energy  of  the  latter  turned  the 
balance  in  his  favor.  His  able  policy  soon  restored  order 
and  confidence  in  Italy;  then,  by  a  toilsome  but  decisive 
campaign  of  forty  days,  he  conquered  the  Pompeian  party 
in  Spain;  and,  returning  to  Rome  only  long  enough  to  be 
elected  consul  and  pass  some  laws  giving  relief  to  debtors 
and  proscribed  persons,  he  pressed  on  into  Greece,  where 
the  great  decisive  combat  took  place  at  Pharsalia  in  Thes- 
saly.  Pompey  was  defeated,  and,  fleeing  into  Egypt,  was 
murdered  by  an  officer  of  Ptolemy,  B.  C.  48. 

236.  His  party  rallied  in  great  force  in  the  province  of 
Africa,  but  Caesar  defeated  them  at  Thapsus,  where  50,000 
Pompeians  were  left  dead  upon  the  field.     Caesar 

was  now  the  acknowledged  head  of  the  Roman 
world.  The  Senate  declared  him  Dictator  and  Imperator* 
for  life,  with  liberty  to  name  his  successor.  His  statues 
were  placed  in  the  temples,  and  his  name  was  invoked  in 
legal  oaths  like  that  of  a  god.  Caesar  used  his  power  in  a 
way  that  proved  his  genius  to  be  even  greater  for  govern- 


*  This  title  had  often  been  given  by  acclamation  to  successful 
generals;  it  now  acquired  a  special  meaning  equivalent  to  the  mod- 
ern Emperor.  Caesar's  name  has  also  given  to  three  great  empires 
their  title  for  the  highest  dignitary :  Kaiser  and  Czar. 


136  THE  ANCIENT  WORLD. 

ment  than  for  war.  Instead  of  the  proscriptions  and  mas- 
sacres which  had  followed  the  return  of  Marius  and  Sulla 
(§§  224,  225),  amnesty  to  all  was  his  policy.  He  seemed 
to  have  forgotten  the  injuries  which  he  had  personally 
received,  and  sought  out  men  of  merit  in  all  parties  to  aid 
him  in  the  restoration  of  order  and  prosperity. 

237.  He  reformed  the  calendar,*  which  had  fallen  into 
great  confusion,  and  with  such  wisdom  that  it  has  needed 
only  one  slight  amendment  from  his  time  to  our  own.  He 
planned  great  works  of  public  utility  for  Rome,  while  he 
equally  studied  the  interests  of  every  part  of  his  vast  em- 
pire. He  rebuilt  the  cities  of  Corinth  and  Carthage,  and 
founded  many  new  colonies  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa, 
giving  to  all  the  people  as  nearly  as  possible  the  same 
privileges  as  to  those  of  Italy.  Yet  all  these  works  and 
many  more  were  accomplished  in  the  intervals  of  seven 
toilsome  campaigns,  which  he  conducted  between  his  cross- 
ing the  Rubicon  and  his  death  —  a  period  of  little  more 
than  five  years. 

238.  Caesar  still  had  bitter  enemies,  and  they  were  joined 
by  a  few  honest  RepubHcans,  who  believed  that  the  one- 
man  power  had  destroyed  Roman  freedom.  On  the  eve 
of  his  departure  for  Asia — where  he  meant  to  punish  the 

Parthians  for  the  fate  of  Crassus  (§  232)  — 
Caesar  was  murdered  in  the  Senate  House. 
But  though  the  Dictator  was  dead,  the  Romans  were  not 
free.  It  was  easier  to  destroy  one  man's  life  than  to 
restore  to  the  nation  the  strong  and  simple  character 
which  had  been  the  true  foundation  of  the  Republic. 
The  conquests  in  the  East  had  brought  to  Italy  a  crowd 
of  Asiatics,  who  lowered  the  tone  of  Roman  society; 
and,  ever  since  ease  and  wealth  had  been  regarded  by 
the  people  at  large  as  of  more  value  than  honesty  and 
freedom,  the  Republic  had  been  doomed.  A  new  Tri- 
umvirate  (§  231),   composed    of    Mark   An'tony,   Lep'idus, 


DEFEAT  OF  ANTONY.  137 

and  Caesar  Octavia'nus — nephew  and  heir  of  the  great 
Dictator — soon  divided  the  world  among  them.  A  pro- 
scription followed,  in  which  2,000  knights  and  300  sena- 
tors— among  the  latter,  Cicero,*  the  Father  of  his  Country 
—  lost  their  lives.  The  last  of  Caesar's  murderers  were 
defeated  at  Philippi,  42  B.  C,  and  ended  their  lives  by 
suicide. 

239.  The  Triumvirate  was  soon  broken  by  the  defection 
of  Lepidus,  and  a  quarrel  between  Antony  and  Octavian. 
Antony  was  enslaved  by  the  arts  of  the  Egyptian  queen, 
Cleopatra  (§  174),  on  whom  he  bestowed  Syrian  territories 
which  belonged  to  Rome,  and  for  whose  sake  he  forgot 
both  duty  and  honor.  In  a  great  battle  off 
Actium,    he    was    deserted    by    many    of    his  *    '  ^'' 

officers,  and  fled  to  Egypt,  leaving  the  victory  to  Octa- 
vian. The  next  year  he  was  again  defeated  at  Alexandria, 
and  in  despair  put  an  end  to  his  own  life.  Cleopatra 
followed  his  example.  Egypt  was  made  a  province  of 
Rome,  and  the  younger  Caesar  was  now  lord  of  the  world. 

Point  out,  on  Map  5,  the  provinces  of  Cresar  and  of  Pompey 
before  the  battle  of  Pharsalia,  \  235.  The  site  of  Crassus'  defeat, 
§  232. — Pharsalia,  Thapsus,  Philippi,  Actium,  Gaul,  Britain,  Germany, 
Numidia,  the  Danube,  the  Rhone,  Arausio,  Aquae  Sextioe  (Aix), 
Vercellae,  Puteoli,  Thessalonica. 

Read  Merivale's  History  of  the  Romans  under  the  Empire,  For- 
syth's Life  of  Cicero,  Ccesar's  Commentaries,  and  Mommsen's  History 
of  Rome,  Vol.  IV. 

NOTES. 

1.  Sempronius  Gracchus,  the  father  of  the  two  Tribunes,  was  a  plebe- 
ian, but  H  distiuKuisliod  general,  and  twice  a  consul,  who,  in  17ti  B.  C, 
had  conquered  tlie  island  of  Sardinia  for  Rome.  Tiberius  (iracclius 
had  served  at  the  capture  and  destruction  of  Carthage  (g215)  under  his 
brother-in-law,  Scipio  Africanus  the  Younger,  and  had  afterwards  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  the  Numantian  war  in  Spain.  The  measure  which 
cost  him  his  life,  through  the  violent  opposition  of  the  nobles,  was  only 
the  revival  of  the  Licinian  I^aw  (^  197  and  note),  which  had  never  been 
repealed,  though  completely  disregarded. 

2.  Caius  Qracchus,  while  still  a  youth,  had  drawn  upon  himself  the 
jealousy  of  the  aristocracy  by  his  great  talents  and  persuasive  eloquence; 
but  during  Ids  service  in  Sardinia  he  had  risen  high   in  the  favor  of 


138 


THE  ANCIENT    WORLD. 


soldiei*s  and  people.  As  tribune,  one  of  his  laws  transferred  the  judicial 
power  from,  the  senate  to  the  equestrian  order,  and  another  created  the 
class  of  great  merchants  and  bankers,  hitherto  unknown  in  Rome,  by 
assigning  to  distinguished  plebeians  the  collection  of  revenues  in  the 
provinces.  He  himself  conducted  a  colony  to  Carthage,  and,  after  at- 
tending to  their  establishment,  returned  in  seventy  days. 

He  desired  to  give  the  full  rights  of  Roman  citizenship  to  all  free 
Italians.  But  the  senate  had  now  undermined  his  Influence  with  the 
people  by  a  stratagem.  They  induced  M.  Livius  Drusus,  the  new  tribune, 
to  propose  still  more  radical  changes,  which,  however,  were  never  in- 
tended to  be  carried  out.  Opimius,  a  bitter  enemy  to  Gracchus,  became 
consul,  while  the  latter  descended  to  a  private  station,  and  several  of 
his  laws  were  repealed.  Fulvius  Flaccus,  a  rash  partisan  of  Caius,  took 
up  arms  in  his  defense,  but  Caius  abstained  as  far  as  possible  from  all 
violence.  He  perished  in  a  general  massacre,  ordered  by  Opimius,  B. 
C.  121. 

3.  Pontus,  south  of  the  Black  Sea,  from  which  it  took  its  name,  was 
one  of  the  kingdoms  that  had  been  formed  from  the  fragments  of  the 
old  Persian  Empire.  When  the  "  Province  of  Asia "  was  organized, 
Pontus,  under  its  king,  Mithridates  the  Great,  became  the  next  neigh- 
bor of  Rome.  Mithridates  was  an  ambitious  and  able  prince,  who 
combined  the  qualities  of  a  barbarian  chief  and  a  European  statesman 
in  remarkable  proportions.  He  spoke  Greek  with  fluency,  and  was 
equally  familiar  with  the  Asiatic  dialects  of  the  tribes  among  which  he 
had  passed  his  wandering  and  adventurous  life.  By  means  of  spies  he 
was  a  keen  observer  of  all  that  was  going  on  in  Rome;  and,  encouraged 
by  the  corruption  of  the  ruling  classes,  and  the  dangers  arising  from 
slaves  and  allies,  he  hoped  to  make  himself  undisputed  sovereign  of 
the  East.  He  had  already  annexed  the  Euxine  coast  as  far  as  the 
Crimea,  and.  "with  the  help  of  pirates  from  the  Mediterranean,  formed 
a  fleet  whicn  gave  him  complete  command  of  the  Black  Sea." 

"When  the  news  of  the  Social  War  reached  Mithridates,  he  thought 
it  needless  to  temporize  longer,  and  he  stretched  out  his  hand  to  seize 
the  prize  of  the  dominion  of  the  East.  .  .  .  He  called  under  arms  the 
whole  force  of  which  he  could  dispose;  frightened  rumor  spoke  of  it  as 
amounting  to  300,000  men.  His  Corsair  fleets  poured  down  through  the 
Dardanelles  into  the  Archipelago;  and  so  detested  had  the  Roman  gov- 
ernors made  themselves  by  their  extortion  and  injustice,  that  not  only 
the  islands,  but  the  provinces  on  the  continent,  Ionia,  Lydia,  and  Caria, 
rose  in  revolt.  The  rebellion  was  preconcerted  and  simultaneous.  The 
Roman  residents,  merchants,  bankers,  farmers  of  the  taxes,  they  and 
all  their  families,  were  set  upon  and  murdered;  150,000  men,  women,  and 
children  were  said  to  have  been  destroyed  in  a  single  day.  If  we  divide 
by  ten,  as  it  is  safe  to  do  in  historical  round  numbers,  still  beyond 
doubt  the  signal  had  been  given  in  an  appalling  massacre  to  abolish 
out  of  Asia  the  Roman  name  and  power.  Swift  as  a  thunderbolt,  Mith- 
ridates himself  crossed  the  Bosphorus,  and  the  next  news  that  reached 
Rome  was  that  northern  Greece  had  risen  also  and  was  throwing  itself 
into  the  arms  of  its  deliverers."— i^rowde's  '^Ccesar.^'' 

The  victories  of  Sulla  deprived  the  Pontic  prince  of  all  his  conquests, 
but  left  him  in  possession  of  his  hereditary  kingdom.  The  second  Mith- 
ridatic  War  began  B.  C.  74,  and  continued  ten  years,  ending  with  a  com- 
plete triumph  of  the  Romans  under  Pompey  (§228). 

"The  barbarian  king  who  had  so  long  defied  the  Roman  power,  was 
beaten  down  at  last,  and  fled  across  the  Black  Sea  to  Kertch,  where  his 
sons  turned  against  him.  He  was  sixty-eight  years  old,  and  could  not 
wait  till  the  wheel  should  make  another  turn."  "  He  had  fortified  him- 
self against  poison  until  it  would  no  longer  take  effect;  he  therefore, 
"sought  a  surer  death,  and  fell,  like  Saul,  by  the  sword  of  a  slave. 
Rome  had  put  out  her  real  strength,  and  at  once,  as  before,  all  opposi- 
tion went  down  before  her.  Asia  was  completely  conquered  up  to  the 
line  of  the  Euphrates.  The  Black  Sea  was  held  securely  by  a  Roman 
fleet."— i6ic?. 

4.  The  Pontiflfe  (§  188),  who  had  the  care  of  the  calendar,  had  abused 
their  high  otflce  for  political  purposes,  lengthening  the  term  of  a  favor- 
ite consul,  or  bringing  to  an  abrupt  end  the  power  of  one  who  was 
thwarting  their  wishes.  In  this  way  the  civil  year  had  become  three 
months  in  advance  of  the  real  course  of  the  seasons;  solstices  were  iu 


NOTES,  139 


spring  and  autumn;  and  equinoxeH,  in  8uinmcr  and  winter:  harvent- 
festlvals  toolc  place  at  tlio  first  l)U(1(iing  of  tlio  leaf*  and  tliose  of  the 
late  vlnlaKo.  in  tlie  iiii<lsiiiiiiiu>r  lieat.  ('a'sar  useci  liis  arl)ltrary  power 
as  I'outi/ex  Sltuimus  witli  lu'tter  olle«'l  and  liiKlier  motives  tlian  hl«  pre- 
deceKKors  liad  done;  lie  adtltMl  ninety  days  to  the  current  year,  and  or- 
daine<l  that  three  out  of  f«>ur  of  all  succcedinK  years  sliould  contain  .'itiTi 
days,  the  fourth  havinu  \M\.  He  al)ollshrd  the  use  of  the  lunar  calcula- 
tions, which  had  caused  a  imrt  of  the  contusion,  and  regulated  the  civil 
year  entirely  l>y  the  sun.  lie  made  the  Iwrlvc  months  consist  of  ;jOand 
!{1  days  alternately— a  more  conveniint  division  than  the  later  one,  now 
in  use,  wldeh  was  adopted  for  the  purpose  of  llatterlng  AugustUH  (ij241) 
l>y  mailing  the  month  known  hy  his  name  of  equal  length  witli  the 
pf(.H3e<ilng  one,  which  was  named  from  the  great  Julius.  A  day  was 
accordingly  taken  from  February  and  adde<i  to  Auf/uxt;  tlien,  to  avoid 
having  tliree  long  months  in  succession.  September  and  November  were 
shortened,  and  Octoljor  and  December  lengthened. 

t'lesar  hail  planned  his  refonnation  of  the  calendar  at  Alexandria  with 
the  aid  of  Sosigenes,  tlie  asti-onomer.  The  civil  year  was  now  too  long 
by  II  minutes  and  14  seconds.  It  was  set  right  in  A.  D.  1582,  by  Pope 
Gregory  XIII.— also  Pontifex  Maximus  at  Rome— who  suppressed  ten 
days  of  that  year,  and  whose  reformetl  calendar  is  now  used  in  every 
Christian  country  excepting  Rus-sia. 

5.  Marcus  Tullius  Cicero  was  born  B.  C.  106,  at  Arpinum,  seventy 
miles  .south-east  of  Home.  His  father  is  described  as  a  country  gentle- 
man in  good  circumstances,  given  to  literature,  residing  luibitually  at 
his  estate  on  the  I^iris,  and  paying  occasional  visits  to  tlie  capital. 
The  boy  Marcus,  by  his  keen  delight  in  poetry  and  eloquence,  and  l>y 
his  severe  and  constant  study,  proved  those  rare  talents  whicli  made 
him  afterwards  the  most  illustrious  of  Roman  orators.  His  education 
was  directed  by  Archia.s,  the  Greek  poet,  and  he  became  deeply  versed 
in  Hellenic  literature  and  pliilo.sopliy. 

He  first  appeared  as  an  advocate  in  the  Forum- where  Roman  courts 
of  law  were  held— at  25  years  of  age;  but  his  health  was  so  delicate, 
that  he  resolved  to  devote  two  years  to  foreign  travel,  perfecting  himself 
meanwhile  in  his  favorite  studies  at  Athens  and  Rhodes. 

The  fame  of  Cicero  was  establislied  once  for  all,  by  his  prosecution 
of  Verres,  Roman  governor  of  Sicily,  for  his  cruelty  and  rapacity.  It 
wjis  a  test  case,  for  tlie  extortions  of  Roman  officials  were  ))cginningto 
be  felt  as  a  national  di-sgrace.  Verres  in  three  years  had  jiccuniulated 
nearly  four  millions  of  our  money- a  sum  of  much  greater  value  then 
than  now— of  wliich  he  expected  to  spend  two  thirds  in  buying  a  favor- 
able decision  from  the  court  which  ought  to  condemn  him,  and  the 
remaining  third  would  still  support  him  in  luxury  all  his  days.  The 
scathinji  ekxiucnce  of  Cicero,  supported  as  it  was  by  evidence  which  he 
had  pei-sonally  collected  in  Sicily,  overturned  the  governor's  calcula- 
tions, and,  dropping  his  defense  in  despair,  Verres  fled  to  Marseilles. 

Of  Cicero's  other  orations,  the  most  celebrated  are  those  against  Cati- 
line ((5  229),  and  the  fourteen  I'hilinpics  (so  called  from  the  speeches  of 
Demosthenes  against  Philip  of  \iacedon,  |140)  which  lie  pronounced 
against  Antonv-  Of  almost  greater  value,  for  the  light  they  throw  on 
the  life  of  his  time,  are  the  800  letters,  still  existing  (see  note  7,  Ch.  XII, 
B.  II),  in  which,  with  the  confidence  of  friendship,  he  poured  forth  his 
views  of  men  and  things.  The  only  faults  of  Cicero  were  the  vanity 
which  led  him  to  imagine  that  the  affairs  of  the  Roman  world  revolved 
al>out  himself,  and  a  lack  of  manly  sincerity,  which,  in  the  contest  be- 
tween Cwsar  and  Pompey,  kept  him  in  a  state  of  painful  vacillation. 
"The  gratitude  of  mankind  for  his  literary  excellence,  will,"  it  has  been 
truly  said,  "forever  preserve  his  memory  from  too  harsh  a  judgment." 

His  death  occurred  in  the  woods  of  his  own  beautiful  villa  at  Formite, 
near  Gaeta,  while  his  servants  were  carrying  him  toward  the  sea,  in  a 
last  hope  that  he  might  escape.  "To  his  slaves  he  had  always  l)een  the 
gentlest  of  masters.  They  would  have  given  their  lives  in  his  defense  if 
he  would  have  allowed  tliem;  but  he  bade  them  set  the  litter  down  and 
save  themselves.  He  tlirust  liis  head  out  tKjtween  the  curtains,  and  it 
was  instantly  struck  off." 


CHAPTER    XVI. 

THE    ROMAN    EMPIRE. 


T 


II. 
III. 

IV. 


Gladiatorial  Combats. 

HE  history  of  Imperial  Rome  will  be  best  under- 
stood if  divided  into  four  periods: 

I.    Nominal  Power  of  the  Senate.     B.  C.  31- 
A.  D.  192. 

Tyranny  of  the  Soldiers.     A.  D.  193-284. 
Absolute  Imperialism.     A.  D.  284-395. 
Eastern    and    Western    Empires    Divided.      A.    D. 


395-476. 

241.  Caesar  OctavianusMs  best  known  to  history  by  his 
new  title,  Augus'tus.  He  carefully  avoided  all  kingly 
show  and  parade,  though  he  exercised  more  than  kingly 
power:  living  in  his  private  house  on  the  Palatine  hill, 
and  walking  the  streets  unattended,  like  any  other  citizen. 
The  forms  of  the  republic  were  still  kept  up.  The  people 
elected  consuls,  tribunes,  etc.,  every  year,  but  they  always 
chose  the  persons  proposed  by  Augustus;  and  at  length 
these  offices  were,  one  by  one,  granted  to  him  for  life. 
The  multitude  were  kept  in  good  humor  by  a  continual 
succession  of  games,  and  by  liberal  supplies  of  corn,  wine, 
and  oil,  dealt  out  by  the  Imperator.  The  Senate  passed 
all  the  laws  which  he  introduced,  and  was  treated  in  return 
with  perfect  respect. 
(140) 


BIRTH  OF  CHRIST.  14 r 

242.  Augustus  boasted  that  he  **  found  Rome  of  brick, 
and  left  it  of  marble."  Commerce  and  all  the  industries 
flourished ;  the  peace  of  the  city  was  never  broken  during 
his  reign;  and  so  many  great  writers  enjoyed  his  protec- 
tion, that  the  brightest  period  of  every  nation's  literature  is 
called,  in  allusion  to  them,  its  ''Augustan  Age."  Among 
them  were  Vir'gil,  Hor'ace,  Ov'id,  and  other  poets,  and 
Liv'y,  the  first  Roman  historian. 

243.  But  the  chief  distinction  of  the  age  was  little 
dreamed  of  by  the  brilliant  circles  at  Rome.  In  the 
twenty-seventh  year  of  Octavian's  reign,  the  long  promised 
Messi'ah  was  born  at  Bethlehem,  in  Judaea.  Over  His 
cross,  thirty-three  years  later,  men  read  the  announcement, 
*'This  is  the  King  of  the  Jews,"  written  in  Hebrew ^  and 
Greeks  and  Latin:  perhaps  a  hint  of  what  was  meant  by 
the  "fullness  of  times,"  when  the  three  highest  human 
types,  thus  far,  had  reached  their  perfection  in  Hebrew 
religion,  Greek  intelligence,  and  Roman  law;  and  the 
world  was  waiting  for  the  spiritual  kingdom  which  was  to 
outlast  the  glories  of  imperial  Rome. 

244.  The  Roman  Empire  now  embraced  the  whole  Med- 
iterranean, with  its  coasts  and  islands,  from  Sahara  to 
the  Rhine,  Danube,  and  Euxine,  and  from  the  Atlantic  to 
the  Euphrates.  Its  27  provinces  were  divided  by  Augustus 
between  himself  and  the  Senate.  Those  which  were 
securely  at  peace  were  called  Senatorial  Provinces,  .and 
governed  by  proconsuls;  those  which  needed  the  presence 
of  an  army  were  Imperial  Provinces,  managed  by  the 
emperor  or  his  legates.  The  standing  army,  which  kept 
this  vast  dominion  in  awe,  consisted  of  25  legions;  each 
legion,  in  horse,  foot,  and  artillery,  numbered  nearly  7,000 
men.  Beside  these,  the  provinces  furnished  an  equal 
number  of  auxiliary  troops,  so  that  the  emperor  had  at 
his  command  not  fewer  than  350,000  soldiers.  These  do 
not   include   the    ''City  Cohorts,"   an    armed   police,  who 


142  THE   ANCIENT    WORLD. 

kept  order  in  Rome,  nor  the  10,000  Praetorian  Guards, 
who  protected  the  person  of  the  emperor. 

245.  The  only  miHtary  disaster  of  Augustus'  reign  was 
the   destruction   of  three   legions   in    Germany,  putting   an 

end   to   Roman   conquests  north  of  the  Rhine. 
'  ^'  The  victor  was    Her'man^ — the   Romans   called 

him  Armin'ius  —  the  first  great  champion  of  German  inde- 
pendence. Modern  Germany  has  lately  honored  him  by  a 
colossal  statue  on  the  site  of  his  great  victory. 

246.  Augustus  died,  A.  D.  14,  and  the  Senate  conferred 
his  titles  upon  his  adopted  son,  Tibe'rius.  The  army  would 
gladly  have  crowned  German'icus,  its  favorite  general,  the 
nephew  and  adopted  son  of  Tiberius,  but  Germanicus  re- 
fused the  honor.  The  new  emperor  never  forgave  him 
for  being  more  beloved  than  himself:  he  recalled  him 
from  Germany,  when  he  was  on  the  point  of  reconquering 
it,  and  sent  him  to  the  East,  where  he  was  probably  poi- 
soned by  order  of  the  emperor.  Tiberius  was  suspicious 
of  all  abler  and  better  men  than  himself;  but  as  he  could 
not  govern  alone,  he  raised  a  low-lived  man  named  Seja'nus 
to  the  post  of  praetorian  praefect,  and  committed  the  empire 
to  his  disposal. 

247.  The  new  laws  of  Tiberius  destroyed  the  last  remains 
of  popular  government  in  Rome.  He  assumed  the  right  to 
put  any  person  to  death  without  trial;  and  placed  on  the 
list  of  capital  crimes  words  or  even  thoughts  unfavorable 
to  himself.  At  length  he  detected  Sejanus  in  a  plot  against 
his  life,  and,  with  the  just  execution  of  that  minister,  he 
lost  the  only  man  whom  he  ever  trusted.  Thenceforth  the 
best  and  noblest  persons  in  Rome  fell  victims  of  his  jeal- 
ousy; and  the  world  breathed  more  freely  when  it  heard 
of  the  sudden  death  of  Tiberius,  A.  D.  37. 

248.  Army  and  people  gladly  united  in  putting  the  purple 
robe  upon  Caius  Caesar,  the  only  surviving  son  of  Ger- 
manicus.    In  his  childhood   he   had   been   the   pet   of  his 


THE  LAST  OF  THE   C^SAA'S.  143 

father's  soldiers,  and,  from  the  little  military  boots  which 
he  wore  to  please  them,  he  acquired  the  nickname  Calig'ula^ 
which  has  always  clung  to  him.  He  began  well,  but,  soon 
spoiled  by  too  much  power  and  wealth,  he  became  the 
maddest  of  tyrants.  He  demanded  to  be  worshiped  as  a 
god;  he  rejoiced  in  the  death-agonies  of  victims  slain  for 
his  amusement,  and  wished  that  all  the  Roman  people  had 
only  one  head,  that  he  might  chop  it  off  at  a  single  blow ! 

249.  After  four  years,  Caius  was  murdered  by  his  guards, 
and  his  uncle  Clau'dius,  a  weak  old  man,  became  emperor. 
His  reign   is  chiefly  marked  by  the  evil  deeds 

of  his  wives,  Mes'sali'na  and  Ag'rippi'na.     The  '  '*'~^'*' 

latter  persuaded  him  to  disinherit  his  own  son,  and  name 
hers  by  a  former  marriage  as  his  heir;  then  poisoned  him, 
to  make  way  for  the  accession  of  Ne'ro. 

250.  Nero's  tutor  was  Sen'eca,'  a  wise  and  upright  phi- 
losopher; but  as  soon  as  the  new  Caesar  was  old  enough 
to  assume  power  for  himself,  he  proved  a  wicked  tyrant. 
He  murdered  his  mother,  his  wife,  and  the  best  of  his 
ministers  and  generals.  He  is  said  to  have  ordered  the 
kindling  of  a  fire  which  destroyed  two  thirds  of 

Rome;    but  he  charged  it  upon  the  Christians,  '   *" 

multitudes  of  whom  were  burnt  to  death  as  a  punishment. 
To  do  him  justice,  he  rebuilt  Rome  on  a  greatly  improved 
plan,  both  for  health  and  safety.  Instead  of  narrow, 
crooked  streets,  there  were  ample  thoroughfares;  and  every 
house  had  an  abundant  supply  of  water. 

251.  At  length  Roman  patience  was  exhausted  by  the 
vanity  and  tyranny  of  Nero ;  and  Galba  was  chosen  to 
succeed  him.      Knowing   that  resistance  would 

be   vain,    Nero    killed    himself,    and    with    him 
ended   the   descendants — even   by  adoption — of  the  great 
Julius,    though    the    names    of    Ccesar   and    Augustus    were 
retained  as  titles  by  all  succeeding  emperors.      After  three 
short  reigns,  each  ended  by  violence,  the  general,  Vespa'- 


144  THE  ANCIENT    WORLD. 

sian,  assumed  the  purple  robe  of  Augustus,  and  soon 
restored  order  and  prosperity  to  the  Empire.  Rome  was 
adorned  by  the  CoHse'um  and  the  Temple  of  Peace; 
Britain  submitted  to  Roman  rule;  and  the  Jewish  War  of 
Independence  was  ended  by  the  capture  and  destruction 
of  Jerusalem. 

252.  Vespasian  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Ti'tus,  the 
conqueror  of  Jerusalem.'*  He  was  a  brave  and  able  soldier; 
but  his  earlier  years  had  been  so  stained  by  cruelty  and 
excesses  that  the  people  feared  they  were  to  have  another 
Nero  for  their  ruler.  On  the  death  of  his  father,  how- 
ever, Titus  sent  away  all  his  bad  associates,  and  set  him- 
self diligently  to  the  duties  of  his  high  place.  During  his 
short  reign  of  little  more  than  two  years,  he  did  all  that 
wise  liberality  could  do  to  repair  the  calamities  of  fire,  pes- 
tilence,  and  earthquake,  which   afflicted    Rome. 

■  ^^  ^"  It  was  at  this  time  that  Herculaneum  and  Pom- 
peii, beaiitiful  Campanian  towns,  were  suddenly  destroyed 
by  an  eruption  of  Vesuvius.  Domi'tian,  a  brother  of  Titus, 
was  the  next  emperor.  He  proved  himself  a  morose  and 
cruel  tyrant,  and  was  murdered  by  his  guards,  A.  D.  96. 

253.  Five  good  emperors, — Ner'va,  Tra'jan,^  Ha'drian, 
and  the  two  An'tonines, — followed  in  turn.  Trajan  (A.  D. 
98-117)  was  not  only  a  great  general,  but  a  wise,  just, 
and  painstaking  ruler.  He  carefully  studied  all  causes 
which  were  brought  before  him;  wrote  letters  to  the  pro- 
vincial governors  to  aid  them  in  difficult  cases;  lightened 
the  taxes,  and  yet  managed  so  well  as  to  have  means  for 
many  useful  works.  The  emperors  had  hitherto  respected 
the  dying  advice  of  Augustus,  to  regard  the  Rhine,  the 
Danube,  and  the  Euphrates  (§244)  as  the  limits  of  their 
dominion.  Trajan,  however,  conquered  Dacia,  Armenia, 
Assyria,  and  Mesopotamia.  The  first  continued  to  be  a 
Roman  province,  guarded  by  colonies  and  forts;  but  the 
Asiatic  conquests  were  surrendered  by  Hadrian. 


REIGN  OF  MARCUS  AURELIUS,  I45 

254.  During  a  peaceful  reign  of  20  years,  Hadrian  vis- 
ited every  part  of  his  great  empire,  which  is  said  to  have 
been  better  governed  at  this  period  than  ever  before  or 
since.  Peace  and  prosperity  continued,  how- 
ever, during  the  23  years  which  followed,  un-  •  »3  »  »• 
der  T.  Aure'lius  Antoni'nus,  the  first  emperor  who  especially 
protected  the  Christians.  Mar'cus  Aure'lius,^  the  adopted 
son  and  successor  of  Antoninus,  was  one  of  the  best  char* 
acters  whom  History  has  portrayed;  but  his  reign  was 
marked  by  many  calamities.  Parthians  on  the  East,  and 
Germans  on  the  West,  overran  the  Empire,  while  43  years 
of  peace  had  unfitted  the  legions  for  the  toils  of  war. 
The  only  exception  to  the  justice  and  gentleness  of  the 
emperor  was  his  persecution  of  the  Christians.  This  was 
owing  to  the  bigoted  Stoics  who  were  his  chief  advisers, 
and  who  could  not  bear  to  see  their  boasted  virtues  sur- 
passed by  even  the  humblest  disciples  of  Christ.  The 
venerable  bishop,  Pol'ycarp,  a  friend  and  disciple  of  St. 
John,  suffered  a  martyr's  death  at  Smyrna,  A.  D.  167; 
and  ten  years  later  the  churches  of  Vienne  and  Lyons, 
in  France,  were  subjected  to  frightful  massacres.  Aurelius 
labored  unceasingly,  and  often  with  success,  to  repel  the 
invaders  of  his  empire,  and  it  was  during  a  war  with 
a  German  tribe  that  he  died  at  Vienna,  on  the  Danube, 
A.  D.  180. 

255.  His  only  son,  Com'modus,  was  already  associate- 
emperor,  at  the  age  of  17.  He  was  one  of  the  worst  of 
the  tyrants;  and,  under  his  weak  and  dissolute  reign,  the 
very  foundations  of  order  and  peace  seemed  broken  up. 
Soldiers  obeyed  no  one,  but  plundered  and  ravaged  Roman 
territories  at  their  pleasure,  while  citizens  lived  in  lazy 
luxury,  unmindful  of  the  poverty  which  was  creeping  over 
the  world. 

Trace,  upon  Map  5,  the  boundaries  of  the  Roman  Empire  under 
Augustus.     Under  Trajan.     Read  Merivale  and  Josephus. 
Hist.  — icx 


146  THE  ANCIENT   WORLD. 


NOTES. 

1.  Caius  Octavius,  who  afterwards  became,  by  adoption,  C.  Juliuis 
Caesar  Octavianus,  was  born  September  23,  B.  C.  63.  Even  in  childhood 
his  beauty  and  talents  attracted  attention;  and  his  grand-uncle,  the 
great  Julius,  having  no  son  of  his  own,  carefully  watched  over  his  ed- 
ucation, with  a  view  of  making  the  promising  boy  his  heir.  The  pride 
and  ambition  of  Octavius  were,  doubtless,  stimulated  by  the  distinctions 
that  were  heaped  upon  him;  but  the  sudden  and  rapid  changes  which 
he  witnessed  in  public  aflTairs  also  developed  a  prudence  far  beyond  his 
years.  He  was  scarcely  nineteen  when  lie  heard,  at  Apollonia,  in  II- 
lyricum,  of  the  murder  of  his  great-uncle.  The  soldiei-s  immediately 
thronged  about  him,  clamoring  to  be  led  into  Italy  and  to  avenge  the 
death  of  their  Imperator.  Octavian  quieted  them,  and  journeyed  to 
Rome,  as  a  private  person,  to  claim,  in  the  courts,  the  property  which 
Caesar  had  bequeathed  him.  Though  he  made  no  secret  of  his  intention 
to  avenge  his  uncle's  death,  he  was  careful  at  this  time  to  commit  no  of- 
fense against  the  laws.  His  position  was  most  difficult,  for  he  had  to 
defend  himself,  not  only  against  the  powerful  faction  that  had  destroyed 
the  Dictator,  but  against  some  of  Caesar's  fi-iends,  who  were  ambitious 
to  succeed  him  in  absolute  power.  Mark  Antony  refused  to  give  up  the 
money  and  papei-s  of  Caesar,  which  were  in  his  possession.  Octavian 
managed,  however,  with  wonderful  tact,  to  gain  the  favor  of  the  senate 
and  judges,  as  he  had  already  that  of  the  soldiers  and  people.  Even 
Cicero,  who  had  opposed  the  elder  Caesar,  now  declared  that  the  younger 
was  the  only  man  who  could  save  the  republic,  Antony  was  pronounced 
a  public  enemy,  and  the  conduct  of  the  war  against  him  was  intrusted 
to  Octavian,  together  with  the  two  consuls.  But  Octavian,  with  his 
usual  coolness,  now  perceived  that  the  senate  was  losing  power,  and 
would  not  long  be  able  to  resist  the  combined  armies  of  Lepidus  and 
Antony.  He  listened,  therefore,  to  the  mediation  of  Lepidus — a  trusted 
officer  of  the  elder  Caesar,  and  once  his  colleague  in  the  consulship— and, 
in  a  conference  with  him  and  Antony  at  Bologna,  became  a  member  of 
the  triumvirate  (?238).  The  most  disgraceful  feature  of  this  agreement 
was  the  proscription,  in  which  each  of  the  partners  sacrificed  some  of 
his  nearest  friends  to  the  vengeance  of  the  other  two.  Lepidus  wrote 
the  name  of  his  own  brother  in  the  fatal  list;  and  Octavian  consented 
to  the  death  of  Cicero— the  most  illustrious  survivor  of  the  great  age 
of  the  republic  —to  satisfy  Antony's  implacable  hatred.    Of  the  foreign 

Erovinces  of  Rome,  it  was  agreed  that  Antony  should  govern  Gaul; 
epidus,  Spain;  and  Octavian,  Sicily,  Sardinia,  and  Africa.  The  tri- 
umvirate was  to  last  five  years,  and  it  was  renewed  for  another  equal 
period,  in  B.  C.  37,  in  spite  of  the  jealousies  and  mutual  suspicions  which 
constantly  threatened  to  separate  the  allies.  In  B.  C.  36,  Lepidus,  tired 
of  being  treated  as  a  subject  by  his  ambitious  partners,  made  an  effbrt 
to  gain  Sicily  for  himself  and  to  resume  an  equal  place  in  the  trium- 
virate. But  li^s  twenty  legions,  won  by  the  popularity  of  Octavian, 
melted  away  so  fast  that  he  was  compelled  to  throw  himself  at  the  feet 
of  his  rival  and  beg  for  his  life.  Octavian  granted  him  this,  together 
with  the  enjoyment  of  his  large  fortune  and  the  dignity  of  chief  pontifl; 
but  he  was  deprived  of  all  military  command. 

The  victory  of  Caesar  at  Actium  restored  peace  to  the  Roman  world, 
and  the  Gates  of  Janus,  between  the  Quirinal  and  the  Palatine  Mounts- 
through  which  armies  alwa5^s  passed  in  going  to  war— were  closed  for 
the  first  time  in  many  years. 

With  all  the  splendor  of  his  public  career,  Augustus,  as  we  must  now 
call  him,  had  many  misfortunes  in  his  family.  His  third  wife,  Livia— 
though  she  enjoyed  the  love  and  confidence  of  her  husband  to  the  end 
of  his  life— was  an  unscrupulous  plotter,  who  procured  the  death  of  his 
two  grandsons  in  order  to  make  way  for  her  own  son  by  a  former  mar- 
riage, the  gloomy  and  merciless  Tiberius.  Augustus  did,  in  fact,  adopt 
Tiberius  as  his  heir,  and  even  associated  him  in  ihegovernment  during  his 
own  life-time.  The  next  year,  A.  D.  14,  Tiberius  set  out  for  a  campaign 
in  Illyricum,  and  the  aged  emperor  accompanied  him  as  far  as  Naples. 
Augustus  was  taken  ill  on  his  return,  and  died  at  Nola,  on  the  29th  of 
August,  the  month  that  had  been  especially  named  for  him  (see  p.  139). 
Livia  kept  the  event  secret  until  Tiberius  could  return  to  Nola,  where 
he  was  received  with  acclamations,  as  emperor  and  "Augustus." 


NOTES.  147 


2.  "Arminius  war  fainilinr  with  the  Roman  language  and  civiliza- 
tion; ho  hna  srrvotl  in  tiio  Koman  urniioK;  lio  tuul  ))ccn  aiimitted  to 
Kotnnn  cltl/onshii>,  iiiul  ralso<l  t<»  tl>o  ranlc  of  tlie  ('(lUcstrlan  order.  It 
was  part  of  the  subtlii'  poliry  of  Home  to  confer  rank  and  ))rivilogCH 
on  tlie  youtli  of  tlie  l(>adiMK  fanillieH  in  tlie  nationH  wlileh  she  wlslicMi 
to  enslave.  AnioiiK  otlier  yoiinn  (ternian  cliieftains,  ArmlniuH  and  IiIh 
brotljer,  who  were  tlio  lieads  of  the  noblest  iiouse  in  tlie  tribe  of  tlie 
Clierusei,  lia«l  been  selec'te<l  as  lit  objects  for  the  exercise  of  this  insidi- 
ons  system.  Ilonian  retlnenients  and  «llKnities  succeeded  in  denutional- 
izinjs  tlie  brother,  who  assununi  the  Konian  name  of  Flavins,  and  ad- 
hercHi  to  Home  througliont  all  lier  wars  against  his  country.  Arminius 
reinainotl  unbouglit  by  lienors  or  wealth,  uncorrupted  by  refinement  or 
lu.\ury. 

"Va.st  and  admirably  orRanized  as  tlie  fabric  of  Roman  power  ap- 
peared on  the  frontiers  and  in  tlie  provinces,  there  was  rottenness  at 
the  core.  .  .  .  Slaves,  the  chance  sweepings  of  every  con(iuered  coun- 
try, shoals  of  Africans,  Sardinians,  Asiatics,  lilj-rians,  and  othei*s  made 
up  the  bulk  of  the  population  of  the  Italian  peninsula.  The  foulest 
i)rolliv:acy  of  manners  wjis  neneral  in  all  ranks.  .  .  .  Conscious  of 
beiuf;  too  debased  for  self-KOv<'rnment,  the  nation  had  submitted  itself 
to  tlM«  absoluto  authority  of  Au^iustus.  With  bitter  indignation  must  the 
German  chieftain  liave  beheld  all  this,  and  contrasted  it  with  the  rough 
worth  of  his  own  countrymen:  their  bravery,  their  tldelity  to  their 
word,  their  nuvnly  independence  of  spirit,  their  love  of  their  national 
free  institutions,  and  tlieir  loathing  or  every  pollution  and  meanness. 

"Arminius  found  among  the  other  German  chiefs  many  who  sym- 
pathizetl  with  him  in  his  indignation  at  their  country's  abasement, 
and  many  whom  private  wrongs  had  stung  still  more  deeply.  .  .  . 
Seeing  that  the  Infatuation  of  Varus  was  complete,  lie  secretly  directed 
tlie  tril)es  between  the  Weser  and  the  Ems  to  take  up  arms  In  open 
revolt  against  the  Romans.  Tliis  was  represented  to  Varus  as  an  oc- 
casion which  required  liis  prompt  attendance  at  the  spot;  but  he  was 
kept  in  studied  ignorance  of  its  being  part  of  a  concerted  national  ris- 
ing. .  .  .  lie  tlierefore  set  his  army  in  inotion  and  mardied  eastward 
in  a  line  parallel  to  tlie  course  of  the  Lippe.  .  .  .  For  some  distance 
Varus  was  allowed  to  move  on,  only  harassed  by  slight  skirmishes,  but 
struggling  with  difficulty  through  the  broken  ground,  the  toil  and  dis- 
tress of  his  men  being  aggravated  by  heavy  torrents  of  rain,  which 
burst  upon  the  devoted  legions,  as  if  the  angrx  gods  of  Germany  were 
pouring  out  the  vials  of  their  wrath  upon  the  Invaders.  After  some 
little  time  their*  van  approached  a  ridge  of  liigli,  woody  ground,  which  is 
one  of  the  offslioots  of  the  great  Ilercynian  forest,  and  is  situated  be- 
tween the  iuo<lern  villages  of  Driburg  and  Bielefeld.  Arminius  had 
caused  barricades  of  liewn  trees  to  be  formed  here,  so  as  to  add  to 
the  natunil  difficulties  of  the  passage.  Fatigue  and  discouragement 
now  began  to  betray  themselves  in  the  Roman  ranks.  Their  line  be- 
came less  steady;  baggage- wagons  were  abandoned  from  the  impos- 
sibility of  forcing  tiiem  along;  and,  jvs  this  iiappened,  many  sokliers 
left  their  ranks,  and  crowded  round  the  wagons  to  secure  the  most  val- 
uable portions  of  their  property;  each  was  busy  about  his  own  affairs, 
and  purposely  slow  in  hearing  the  word  of  command  from  his  officers. 
Arminius  now  gave  the  signal  for  a  general  attack.  The  tierce  shouts  of 
the  Germans  pealed  through  the  gloom  of  the  forests,  and  in  thronging 
multitudes  they  assailed  the  flanks  of  the  invaders,  pouring  in  clouds 
of  darts  on  the  encumbered  legionaries,  as  they  struggled  up  the  glens 
or  floundered  in  the  morasses,  and  watching  every  opportunity  of 
charging  through  the  intervals  of  the  disjointed  column,  and  .so  cutting 
ofT  the  communication  between  its  several  brigades.  .  .  .  Unable  to 
keep  togetlier,  or  force  their  way  across  the  woods  and  swamps,  the 
horsemen  were  overpowered  in  detail,  and  slaughtered  to  the  last  man. 
The  Roman  infantry  still  held  together,  but  more  through  the  instinct 
of  discipline  and  bravery  than  from  any  hope  of  success  or  escape.  .  .  . 
The  R<mian  liost,  which,  on  the  yester  morning  liad  marcheu  forth  In 
such  pride  and  might,  now  broken  up  Into  confused  fragments,  either  fell 
flghting  beneath  the  overpowering  numbers  of  the  enemy,  or  perished 
in  the  swamps  and  woods  in  unavailing  eftbrts  at  flight.  Few.  very 
few,  ever  saw  again  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine.  Never  was  victory 
more  decisive,  never  was  the  liberation  of  an  oppressed  people  more 
instantaneous  and  complete.    Throughout  Germany  the  Roman  garri* 


148 


THE   ANCIENT    WORLD. 


sons  were  assailed  and  cut  off;  and,  within  a  few  weeks  after  Varus  had 
fallen,  the  German  soil  was  treed  from  the  foot  of  an  invader,"— /iSiV  E. 
Creasy,  '■'^  Fifteen  Decisive  Battles  of  the  World.''^ 

From  this  decisive  point  the  Rliine  continued  to  be  the  frontier  be- 
tween Rome  and  the  Germans,  until,  five  centuries  later,  the  tide  of 
conquest  turned  in  the  other  direction,  and  the  Teutonic  races  divided 
the  empire  into  the  kingdoms  of  modern  Europe. 

3.  Seneca,  the  son  of  a  Roman  knight,  was  born  at  Cordova,  in  Spain, 
a  few  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ.  In  the  reign  of  Tiberius  he 
gained  distinction  by  pleading  causes  in  the  courts;  his  eloquence  drew 
upon  him  the  hatred  of  Caligula,  who  detested  excellence  of  every  kind, 
and  who  would  have  ordered  the  orator  to  instant  execution,  but  that 
some  one  pointed  to  the  consumptive  frame  of  Seneca  and  whispered 
that  it  "  was  useless  to  extinguish  a  waning  lamp."  Among  the  first  acts 
of  Claudius  was  the  banishment  of  the  philosopher  to  Corsica;  but,  after 
eight  years,  he  wjis  recalled  by  Agrippina,  and  became  the  tutor  of  her 
son.  Tlie  worst  stains  on  Seneca's  character  came  from  his  consent  to 
some,  at  least,  of  Nero's  crimes.  His  philosophy  was  high  and  pure, 
but  his  life  wsis  governed  by  an  excessive  love  of  wealth.  He  "  declaimed 
in  praise  of  poverty  with  two  millions  sterling  out  at  usury,  and  cele- 
brated the  divine  beauty  of  virtue  with  the  same  pen  which  had  writ- 
ten a  defense  of  the  murder  of  a  mother  by  a  son." 

But  Seneca's  weak  compliance  failed  of  its  desired  end.  His  unspok- 
en condemnation,  of  which  Nero  could  not  but  be  conscious,  was  as 
irksome  as  open  remonstrance  would  have  been.  Seneca  was  accused 
of  having  part  in  a  conspiracy  against  the  emperor,  and  by  Nero's  or- 
der he  put  an  end  to  his  own  life  by  opening  his  veins. 

4.  The  Asmonaean  Dynasty  (g  171  and  note)  had  been  succeeded,  B. 
C.  37,  by  that  of  the  Herods,  who  were  Edomites  by  descent.  Herod 
the  Great,  the  first  of  these  kings,  was  a  man  of  remarkable  ability,  but 
of  cruel  and  ungoverned  passions.  It  was  he  that  ordered  the  murder 
of  all  the  infants  in  Bethlehem,  with  the  vain  hope  that  the  Savior  of 
the  world  might  perish  among  them.  His  own  death  occurred  the  same 
year.  His  son,  Archelaus,  forfeited  his  kingdom  by  many  crimes,  A.  D. 
6;  and  with  a  short  interval,  A.  D.  41-44,  under  Herod  Agrippa  I.  (see 
Acts  xii),  Judsea  remained  subject  to  Roman  procurators  or  governors, 
under  the  Imperial  Legate  of  Syria.  It  was  under  Pontius  Pilate,  the 
sixth  of  these  governors,  that  Christ  was  crucified.  The  series  of  of- 
ficials that  followed  Agrippa  I.  were,  if  possible,  more  criminally  cor- 
rupt than  their  predecessors.  "  All  the  bonds  of  social  order  were  dis- 
solved; no  property  was  secure;  assassins  alone  prospered,  and  the  pro- 
curators went  shares  with  them  in  the  profits." 

At  last,  in  A.  D.  66,  Gessius  Florus  plundered  the  treasures  of  the 
temple,  gave  up  Jerusalem  to  open  robbery,  and  crucified  a  number  of 
its  inhabitants.  Revolt  could  no  longer  be  delayed;  the  Roman  garri- 
son in  the  Castle  of  Antonia  were  put  to  the  sword ;  the  Syrian  Legate, 
after  a  short  siege  of  Jerusalem,  was  compelled  to  withdraw;  and  his 
retreat  was  changed  into  flight  by  a  fierce  attack  near  Bethhoron.  Nero 
intrusted  the  suppression  of  the  Jewish  revolt  to  his  best  and  ablest 
general,  Vespasian,  who,  within  a  year,  had  reduced  the  whole  country, 
excepting  Jerusalem  and  one  or  two  other  fortresses.  But  the  death  of 
Nero  and  the  rivalry  of  the  generals  for  the  crown  suspended  the  war 
for  two  years.  No  sooner  was  Vespasian  proclaimed  emperor  than  he 
charged  his  son  Titus  with  the  completion  of  the  work  which  he  had 
begun.  Jerusalem  itself  was  divided  between  two  parties.  John  of 
Gischala.  the  Galilsean  leader  of  the  "Zealots"  holding  the  temple  and 
the  height  of  Mt.  Moriah;  while  the  guerrilla  captain,  Simon  Bar  Giora, 
occupied  Mt.  Zion  and  the  Upper  City.  But  when,  in  the  spring  of 
A.  D.  70,  Titus,  with  his  legions,  had  encamped  upon  the  heights  to  the 
northward,  and  had  taken  the  Lower  City,  the  two  leaders  found  it 
necessary  to  forget  their  differences  and  strain  every  nerve  for  the  com- 
mon defense.  Finding  that  the  two  heights  could  not  be  carried  by  as- 
sault, Titus  surrounded  the  whole  city  with  a  strong  wall,  and  resolved 
to  reduce  it  by  famine.  Rather  than  submit,  mothers  are  said  to  have 
devoured  their  own  children ;  and  still  the  daily  sacrifice  went  on  in  the 
temple.  At  length,  Aug.  10,  a  firebrand  flung  by  a  Roman  soldier,  set 
fire  to  the  temple,  and,  after  a  frightful  slaughter,  Mt.  Moriah  was 


NOTES,  149 


abandoned,  ItR  surviving  defenders  outtlng  their  way  across  the  bridge 
to  Mt.  Zion.  The  onrrlson  of  the  Upper  City,  meanwhile,  was  so  re- 
duced by  laiiiine,  llmt  wlieii,  on  the  <lli  of  September,  tlie  Anal  assault 
wius  mmle,  there  whh  no  power  to  resist.  MuItitudeH  were  slain;  the 
rest  were  sold  otT  ais  sliives,  and  divldtni  umonK  otfleers  and  Koldlers  as 
booty.  Titus  earrled  away  the  two  leaders,  and  7(M)  of  their  brave  com- 
rades to  adorn  his  triumph  at  Home,  together  with  the  seven-branched 
candlestlelv  and  other  golden  spoils  of  the  temple.  Representations  of 
these  may  still  be  seen  at  Home,  uix)n  the  "Areii  of  Titus,"  which  com- 
memorated this  victory. 

Even  tlie  fall  of  the  Holy  City  did  not  wholly  break  the  spirit  of 
the  Jews,  for  the  fortress  of  Masada,  on  the  I>ead  Sea,  remalne(f  in  the 
hands  of  the  Zealot«.  With  its  capture,  A.  D.  73,  the  laat  spark  of  re- 
sistance died  out. 


5.  M.  Ulpius  Trajanus  was  born  near  Seville,  in  Spain,  A.  D.  52,  be- 
ing the  tlrst  Roman  emperor,  though  by  no  means  the  last,  who  was 
not  a  native  of  It^dv.  lie  was  commanding  the  Roman  forces  in  Cier- 
many,  having  his  hea<l-quarters  in  Colc^ne,  when  he  wius  adopted  by 
the  Kmperor  Nerva,  as  his  heir;  and.  the  next  year,  A.  D.  JW,  became 
emperor.  Tnijan  had  the  hardy,  simple,  and  industrious  liabits  of  the 
earlier  Romans;  jus  a  warrior,  he  shared  the  hartlships  of  the  camp  and 
the  march,  and  was  both  loved  and  reverenced  by  his  soldiers. 

He  appointetl  the  younger  Pliny,  A.  D.  10.'J,  to  be  governor  of  Blthynia; 
and  Pliny's  letter  asking  the  emperor's  direction  concerning  the  Chris- 
tians in  his  i)rovince,  is  the  first  mention  of  the  new  religion  in  profane 
literature.  Trajan's  reply  shows  him  more  just  and  merciful  than  his 
lieutenant;  though  any  proved  disrespect  to  tlie  gods  of  Rome  is  to  be 
puuishetl,  informers  are  not  to  bo  encouraged,  and  slight  concessions  on 
the  part  of  the  accused  are  to  be  accepted  as  proof  of  repentance. 

The  stvcalletl  Column  of  Trajan  at  Rome  is  supposed  to  be  a  memo- 
rial of  this  emperor's  victories  beyond  the  Danube.  Remains  of  the 
bridge  by  which  he  crossed  that  river  are  still  visible  at  Szernecz;  and 
both  the  name  and  the  prevailing  language  of  the  new  kingdom  of 
Roumania  are  interesting  results  ol  Trajan's  conquest  and  settlements. 

The  emperor  was  at  Antioch  at  the  time  of  the  great  earthcjuake, 
A.  D.  115,  which  destroyed  many  buildings  and  multitudes  of  lives.  It 
is  uncertain  whether  his  interview  with  Ignatius,  the  saintly  bishop  of 
Antioch,  took  place  at  this  visit  or  earlier.  To  stay  the  persecutions  of 
his  flock,  the  bishop  freely  offered  himself  jus  a  martyr;  and,  after  a  long 
and  toilsome  journey,  he  was  indeed  thrown  to  the  wild  beasts  in  the 
Coliseum  at  Rome.  It  is  hard  to  reconcile  the  usual  justice  of  Trajan 
with  this  iniquitous  sentence.  The  emperor  died  A.  D.  117,  in  Cilicia, 
having  reigned  19  years  and  6  months. 

6.  In  the  first  book  of  his  "Meditations"  M.  Aurelius  thanks  the 


gods  for  "  good  grandfathers,  good  parents,  a  good  sister,  good  teachers 
good  associates,  good  kinsmen  and  friends,  nearly  every  thing  good.' 
At  the  age  of  eleven,  he  a.ssumed  the  plain,  coarse  dress  of  a  philoso- 
pher, and  even  injure<l  his  health  by  hard  study  and  scanty  food.  As 
he  grew  up  he  gained  the  serenity  of  the  Stoics,  without  their  harsh- 
ness; and,  amidst  all  the  stern  and  absorbing  duties  of  his  imperial  sta- 
tion, found  time  to  "live  according  to  nature  and  reason."  The  weight- 
iest of  his  maxims  is  this:  "Love  mankind;  follow  God."  How  far 
Aurelius  was  guilty  of  the  persecutions  of  the  Christians,  it  is  impossi- 
ble to  tell;  the  records  of  his  reign  are  scanty;  and  many  things  were 
done  in  the  emperor's  name  of  which  he  did  not  even  know.  Tlie  pol- 
icy of  the  government  toward  Christians  had  been  fixed  by  Trajan  and 
Hadrian.  Still,  there  is  rea.son  to  fear  that  some  persecuting  edicts  were 
Issued  by  Aurelius  himself.  He  knew  of  the  Christians  only  from  their 
resistance  to  the  Roman  law,  which  declared  all  religions  equal  in  their 
right  to  be,  only  requiring  divine  honors  to  the  emperor,  which  the 
Christians,  of  course,  were  unable  to  render.  The  story  of  the  "Thunder- 
ing legion  "  belongs  to  this  reign.  During  the  war  against  the  Quadl, 
the  Roman  army  was  near  perishing  by  thirst,  when  a  sudden  storm 
drenched  it  with  rain,  while  discomfiting  its  enemies  with  fire  and  hail. 
The  great  victory  which  followed  was  ascribed— one  report  says  by  the 
emperor  himself— to  the  prayers  of  the  Christian  soldiers  who  made  up 
a  greater  part  of  the  legion  above  mentioned. 


CHAPTER   XVII. 

ROMAN     EMPIRE. CONTINUED. 


HERE    followed    a    dis- 
graceful time  when  the 
Praetorian     Guards    set 
up  and   put   down  em- 
perors    at     their    will, 
even  once  selling  the  crown 
at    public   auction !      The   le- 
gions on  the  borders  (§  244) 
thought  they  had  a  still  better 
right    to    dictate;    and    three 
rival    generals   were    at    once 
proposed    as    masters    of    the 
Roman    world.     S  e  p  t  i  m '  i  u  s 
Seve'rus    was    the    successful 
candidate;  and  he  proved  one 

Roman  Lady  and  Servant.  ^f  ^\^q  ablest  of  the    Cmperors. 

In  a  war  with  the  Parthians,  he  took  their  capital,  Ctes'- 
iphon,  by  storm,  and  added,  not  only  Mesopotamia,  but 
a  large  tract  east  of  the  Tigris,  to  the  dominions  of 
Rome.  He  replaced  the  old  Praetorians  with  40,000 
troops  chosen  from  the  legions,  and  made  their  chief, 
the  praetorian  praefect,  the  most  powerful  person  in  the 
world,  next  to  the  emperor.  Severus  made  war,  in  per- 
son, against  the  Caledonians,  in  the  north-western  ex- 
tremity of  his  empire,  and  died  at  York,  the  Roman 
capital  of  Britain,  A.  D.  211. 

257.    His    two    sons    reigned    together    for    a    year,   but 
Car'acal'la,    the    elder,    then    murdered    his    brother,    and, 
(150) 


ALEXANDER    SEVER  US,  151 

goaded  by  a  guilty  conscience,  made  the  whole  world 
suffer  five  years  from  his  agonies  of  remorse.  He  put 
to  death  20,000  persons  on  the  pretext  that  they  were  his 
brother  '^Ge'ta's  friends."  The  only  good  act  recorded 
of  this  wretched  prince  is  the  gift  of  full  Roman  citizen- 
ship to  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  Empire.  Very  likely  this 
was  done  only  to  simplify  his  tax-rolls;  but  it  had  the  im- 
portant effect  of  making  the  protection  of  Roman  law  the 
equal  right  of  every  person. 

258.  Macri'nus,  the  murderer  and  successor  of  Caracalla, 
was  himself  defeated  and  slain  by  the  armies  of  Elagab'alus, 
a  Syrian  boy  of  fourteen  years,  whom  the  armies  in  the 
East  had  been  bribed  to  acknowledge  as  their  emperor. 
In  his  infancy  he  had  been  made  a  priest  of  the  Sun; 
and  the  worship  of  3a'al  was  now  placed  at  Rome  above 
that  of  Jupiter  himself.  Old  Roman  worship,  however 
mistaken  in  its  objects,  had  at  least  been  decorous  and 
solemn.  Elagabalus  added  to  the  disgust  inspired  by  his 
gluttony  and  drunkenness,  by  profaning  every  thing  that 
the  Romans  held  sacred.  At  last  he  was  murdered  by 
the  praetorians,  A.  D.  222. 

259.  His  cousin,  Alexander  Severus,  a  very  different 
character,  was  gladly  acknowledged  by  both  army  and 
Senate  as  their  chief.  His  blameless  life  and  noble  aims 
promised  happiness  to  the  Empire.  Good  men  were  called 
to  the  highest  offices,  the  public  money  was  honestly  spent, 
and  the  Senate  was  respected  as  in  the  days  of  Augustus. 
A  great  revolution  had  taken  place  in  Asia.  The  Parthian 
Empire  (§§  169,  232)  was  now  overthrown  by  the  new 
Persian  monarchy  of  the  Sassan'idae,  who  aimed  to  govern 
all  the  provinces  of  Darius  the  Great  (§  51).  Alexander 
met  the  new  Artaxerxes  and  defeated  him  on  a  plain 
east  of  the  Euphrates.  Then,  returning  to  the  West,  he 
set  out  for  a  campaign  in  Germany,  but  was  slain  in  a 
mutiny  of  his  troops,  A.  D.  235. 


152  THE  ANCIENT  WORLD. 

260.  It  is  needless  to  name  all  the  puppet-chiefs  who 
were  set  up  in  turn  by  the  soldiers — now  a  Thracian 
peasant,  now  an  African  proconsul,  now  a  child  of  twelve 
years — each  one  sure  to  be  deposed  and  slain  as  soon  as 
the  whim  or  resentment  of  his  masters  called  for  a  change. 

Under  De'cius,^  the  second  great  persecution 
•  249  251.  ^^  Christians  took  place ;  and  the  bishops  of 
Rome,  Antioch,  and  Jerusalem  were  among  the  martyrs. 
Decius  fell  in  battle  with  the  Goths — one  of  the  most 
powerful  German  tribes — who  were  ravaging  the  country 
south  of  the  Danube. 

261.  Vale'rian  (A.  D.  254-260),  the  bravest  and  ablest 
of  this  series  of  emperors,  had  to  struggle  against  count- 
less hordes  of  barbarians  from  the  north,  and  against 
the  rising  power  of  Persia  in  the  east  (§258).  At  last 
he  was  made  prisoner  by  Sa'por,  the  Persian  king,  in  a 
great  battle  near  the  Euphrates,  and  spent  the  rest  of 
his  days  in  a  cruel  captivity  at  the  Persian  court.  Various 
fragments  of  the  Roman  Empire  set  up  independent  gov- 
ernments under  many  chiefs,  known  in  general  as  the 
''Thirty  Tyrants." 

262.  Aurelian^  (A.  D.  270-275)  reunited  the  Roman 
dominions,  defeated  the  pretenders  to  sovereignty  within, 
and  the  hostile  barbarians  beyond,  its  limits;  and  ex- 
tended one  victorious  empire  again  from  the  Atlantic  to 
the  Euphrates.  Several  of  his  successors  were  wise  and 
good  men;  but  their  reigns  were  short  and  usually  ended 
by  violence,  until  the  dangerous  power  of  the  legions  was 
overthrown  by  Diocle'tian,  A.   D.  284. 

263.  Period  III.  Perceiving  that  the  Roman  dominion 
was  too  large  to  be  well  governed  by  a  single  sovereign, 
Diocletian^  shared  his  title  of  Augustus  with  his  friend  Max- 
im'ian.  A  few  years  later  each  emperor  adopted  a  son 
and  successor,  who  bore  the  title  of  Ccesar  during  his 
adoptive   father's  lifetime,  and  was  especially  charged  with 


PERSECUTION  OF  THE  CHRISTIANS.  153 

the  defense  of  the  frontiers.  Almost  every  province  needed 
the  presence  of  a  great  army,  so  fierce  and  constant  were 
the  attacks  of  barbarians.  Diocletian  had  his  capital  at 
Nicomedia,  in  Asia  Minor;  Maximian,  his  at  Milan,  in 
northern  Italy;  while  the  Caesar  Constan'tius  fixed  his 
head-quarters  at  York  (§  256),  and  the  Caesar  Gale'rius  at 
Sirmium,  on  the  Danube. 

264.  The  succession  being  thus  regularly  provided  for, 
the  soldiers  lost  their  power  of  dictating  the  choice  of  new 
emixTors.  The  removal  of  the  government  from  Rome, 
destroyed  the  influence  of  the  Senate.  The  emperor's 
edict  had  all  the  force  of  law ;  and  instead  of  veiling  his 
power  under  simple,  citizen-like  manners,  he  now  assumed 
the  state  of  an  eastern  monarch,  and  could  only  be  ap- 
proached with  ceremonies  of  reverence. 

265.  The  religion  taught  by  Christ  and  His  Aposdes 
had  now  reached  every  portion  of  the  Empire;  and,  in 
those  times  of  ruin  and  corruption,  Christians  were  known 
as  the  most  orderly,  industrious,  and  worthy  members  of 
any  community.  Nevertheless,  for  their  refusal  to  worship 
the  emperor's  image,  they  were  subjected  to  a  horrible 
persecution.  In  303,  A.  D.,  Diocletian  published  an  edict 
ordering  the  destruction  of  all  their  churches  and  sacred 
books,  and  the  death  of  all  persons  who  presumed  to  hold 
secret  meetings  for  worship.  The  passions  of  envy  and 
hatred  were  let  loose,  and  every  soil  was  wet  with  innocent 
blood. 

266.  In  305,  A.  D.,  Diocletian,  weary  of  power,  laid 
aside  his  crown,  and  compelled  Maximian  to  do  the  same. 
Some  years  of  contention  followed,  during  which  the  Roman 
world  had  at  one  time  six  masters,  then  four,  then  two, 
and  finally  only  one,  who  was  Con'stantine',  son  of  Con- 
stantius.  This  great  general  had  always  esteemed  the 
virtues  and  protected  the  lives  of  the  Christians  so  far  as 
he  was  able,  even  in  times  of  persecution.     He  was  now 


154  THE  ANCIENT  WORLD. 

to  do  more.  On  his  march  into  Italy  it  is  said  that  he  saw 
a  flaming  cross  in  the  heavens,  with  the  inscription :  By 
this,  cofiquerl  He  adopted  the  emblem  as  his  standard, 
and  soon  gained  two  victories  over  Maxentius, 
'  ^^^'  son  of  Maximian,  which  gave  him  the  posses- 
sion  of  Rome  and  all  Italy. 

267.  As  soon  as  his  power  was  established  in  the  East, 
Constantine  issued  a  circular-letter  to  all  his  subjects,  ad- 
vising them  to  follow  his  example  and  become  Christians. 
Though  pagans  were  allowed  the  free  exercise  of  their 
religion,  Christianity  became,  in  an  important  sense,  the 
religion  of  the  Empire.  The  first  general  Council  of 
Christian  bishops  was  convened  by  Constantine  at  Nice,^ 
in   Bithynia,  A.  D.  325. 

268.  On  the  ruins  of  old  Byzantium,  Constantine  built  a 
new  capital  of  the  world,  which  he  called  New  Rome,  but 
which  bears  in  history  his  own  name  —  Constantinople, 
the  city  of  Constantine.  The  last  trace  of  the  republican 
forms,  so  carefully  cherished  by  Augustus,  had  now  van- 
ished; and  Constantine's  court  was  a  gorgeous  assemblage 
of  officials,  whose  ceremonious  behavior  rivaled  the  homage 
paid  to  Xerxes  or  Darius.  He  created  three  new  ranks 
of  nobles  throughout  the  Empire,  to  whom  the  nobility 
of  modern  Europe  may  trace  their  titles. 

269.  A  standing  army  of  645,000  men  was  now  con- 
stantly maintained  (see  §  244) ;  but,  as  Roman  citizens  were 
no  longer  of  the  same  stuff  with  the  followers  of  Decius 
and  Fabius,  great  numbers  of  barbarians  were  received  into 
the  pay  of  the  emperor.  Nothing  could  so  have  shown 
the  weakness  of  Rome  as  thus  to  arm  her  late  enemies  and 
future  conquerors.  Besides  multitudes  of  Franks  in  the 
imperial  armies,  300,000  Sarmatians  were  received  as  vas- 
sals of  the  Empire,  and  settled  in  Pannonia,  Thrace, 
Macedonia,   and   Italy. 


JULIAN  THE  APOSTATE,  1 55 

270.  Upon  the  death  of  Constantine,  A.  D.  337,  his 
three  sons  divided  the  empire  among  them  and  put  to 
death  all  their  relatives,  excepting  two  cousins.  Within 
a    few    years,    Con'stans    and    Constantine    II. 

were   slain    in   war,    and   Constan'tius    II.,    the  '  "'^^ 

surviving  brother,  reigned  over  the  whole  Roman  world. 
He  had  a  long  and  calamitous  war  with  the  Persians, 
who  defeated  the  Roman  armies  in  nine  pitcljed  battles, 
and  extended  their  raids  westward   to  the  Mediterranean. 

271.  His  cousin  Ju'lian  was,  njean while,  commanding, 
with  great  ability,  near  the  Rhine,  where  he  gained  im- 
portant victories  over  the  Germans.  Constantius,  jealous 
of  his  fame,  ordered  the  greater  part  of  Julian's  army  to 
the  East.  The  soldiers  in  Gaul  mutinied  at  this  unjust 
command,  and  proclaimed  their  beloved  general  Emperor. 
The  Senates  of  Athens  and  Rome  confirmed  their  choice. 
Before  the  two  cousins  could  meet  in  arms,  Constantius 
died,  A.  D.  361,  and  Julian  was  every-where  received 
with  joyful  acclamations. 

272.  He  reduced  the  luxury  of  the  court,  and  declared 
himself  the  "Servant  of  the  Republic."  But  Julian  was  a 
pagan,  chiefly,  perhaps,  because  the  kinsmen  who  had 
murdered  all  his  family,  called  themselves  Christians.  He 
publicly  renounced  Christianity,  placing  himself  and  his 
dominions  under  the  protection  of  the  "immortal  gods." 
After  sixteen  months'  reign  he  died  in  war  with  the  Per- 
sians, and  his  successor,  Jovian,  restored  Christian  worship 
and  universal  tolerance,  A.  D.  363. 

Trace,  upon  Map  5,  the  wars  of  Septimius  Severus.  Point"  out  the 
four  capitals  of  Diocletian's  empire.     The  new  capital  of  Constantine. 

Gibbon's  ♦*  History  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Em- 
pire"  is  the  great  authority  from  the  time  of  the  Antonines.  For 
a  very  interesting  account  of  the  Nicene  Council,  read  Stanley's 
"Lectures  on  the  History  of  the  Eastern  Church." 


156 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD. 


NOTES. 

1.  Decius  was  a  native  of  Pannonia,  on  the  Upper  Danube,  a  region 
which  afterwards  gave  birth  to  a  long  series  of  emperors.  The  manner 
of  liis  elevation  to  imperial  rank  was  singular.  The  army  in  Moesia 
had  revolted ;  and  Decius,  who  stood  high  in  the  confidence  of  the  Em- 
peror Philip,  was  commissioned  by  him  to  reduce  them  to  obedience. 
On  his  arrival  at  the  scene,  the  soldiers,  feeling  that  their  guilt  was 
beyond  forgiveness,  thronged  about  him  with  drawn  swords,  and  com- 
manded him  to  choose  between  instant  death  and  an  imperial  crown. 
For  the  moment  he  accepted  the  latter,  but  wrote  to  assure  Philip  that 
he  had  only  acted  under  compulsion,  and  would  lay  down  his  uncom- 
fortable dignity  as  soon  as  he  could  escape  from  his  jailers.  The  em- 
peror, however,  distrusted  his  loyalty,  and  marched  with  an  army  to 
meet  him.  A  battle  was  fought  near  Verona,  in  which  Philip  was  de- 
feated and  slain,  A.  D.  249. 

The  short  reign  of  Decius  was  marked  by  two  very  different  attempts 
to  restore  the  ancient  manners,  and  with  them  the  ancient  power,  of 
Rome.  It  was  widely  felt  that  the  calamities  that  had  come  upon  the 
empire  were  due  to  the  corruption  of  its  people.    Some  of  the  more  su- 

Eerstitious  believed  also  that  the  gods  were  angry  because  a  new  religion, 
ostile  to  their  worship,  had  become  prevalent.  So  it  was  resolved  both 
to  revive  the  censorship  (note  to  g215)  and  to  persecute  the  Christians. 
Valerian,  afterwards  emperor,  a  Roman  of  the  old  school,  was  chosen  by 
the  senate  to  be  censor;  but  the  untimely  end  of  Decius  relieved  him 
from  the  embarrassing  and,  indeed,  hopeless  task  of  restoring  the  or- 
der and  decency  of  the  early  times  to  Rome.  The  second  measure  was 
only  too  successful,  for  the  wicked  passions  of  men  are  ready  to  break 
forth  with  or  without  a  pretext.  Beside  the  martyrdoms  mentioned  in 
the  text,  a  terrible  massacre  of  Christians  occurred  in  Alexandria;  and 
thousands,  through  fear,  disowned  their  faith. 

2.  Aurelian  was  of  humble  origin— his  father  having  been  a  farm- 
servant  in  the  wild  country  near  the  Danube— and  the  son  was  indebted 
solely  to  his  own  strength,  courage,  and  talents  for  his  rapid  rise  in 
military  rank.  Having  expelled  the  Goths  from  Illyria  and  Thrace,  he 
received  the  public  thanks  of  Valerian,  with  the  title  of  consul-elect. 
Thirteen  years  later,  the  shouts  of  the  legions  hailed  him  as  emperor, 
and  his  short  reign  was  crowded  with  brilliant  successes.  The  Goths, 
Vandals,  and  Alemanni  were  first  vanquished  by  hard  fighting;  then 
he  turned  against  Zenobia,  Queen  of  the  East,  who,  since  the  death  of 
her  husband,  Odenatus,  had  ruled  at  Palmyra  over  a  great  part  of  Asia 
Minor,  Syria,  and  Egypt.  The  Palmyrenes  were  twice  defeated,  and 
their  city  was  taken  after  a  long  and  brave  resistance.  Their  queen 
was  carried  as  a  captive  to  Rome.  Learning,  on  his  way,  that  the  Pal- 
myrenes had  revolted  and  had  destroyed  the  Roman  governor  and  gar- 
rison, Aurelian  instantly  reversed  his  march,  massacred  the  whole 
population  of  the  city,  and  razed  its  buildings  to  the  ground,  giving 
orders,  however,  for  the  reconstruction  of  the  Temple  of  the  Sun,  which 
he  regarded  as  his  own  special  divinity. 

The  whole  empire  east  of  the  Adriatic  was  now  subject  to  Aurelian; 
but  Britain,  Gaul,  and  Spain  were  ruled  from  Bordeaux  by  Tetricus,  the 
last  of  a  succession  of  "tyrants."  His  armies  were  defeated,  perhaps  by 
his  own  consent,  at  Chalons;  and  the  west  of  Europe  submitted  to  the 
conqueror.  Aurelian  celebrated  his  victories  by  such  a  "  triumph  "  as 
Rome  had  not  seen  since  the  time  of  Julius  Csesar.  His  visit  to  the 
capital  was  still  more  happily  marked  by  wise  laws  for  the  relief  of  the 
poor,  and  by  the  building  of  a  new  and  strongly  fortified  wall  around 
the  whole  city,  which,  however,  was  not  completed  until  the  reign  of 
Probus.  Aurelian  was  on  his  march  against  the  Persians,  when  he  was 
slain  by  one  of  his  officers,  A.  D.  275. 

3.  Diocletian  was  the  son  of  a  Dalmatian  freedman ;  some  accounts 
even  assert  that  he  himself  had  been  a  slave,  but  this  is  improbable. 
He  held  high  commands  in  the  army  under  Aurelian,  Probus,  and  Carus. 
The  last-named  emperor  died  suddenly  in  Asia,  and  his  son,  Numerian, 
was  murdered  by  his  father-in-law,  the  praetorian  prsefect,  who  hoped 
to  succeed  him.    The  soldiers,  learning  of  the  crime,  set  un  Diocletian, 


NOTES.  157 

who  was  captain  of  tho  body-guards,  to  avenge  and  iiuooeed  their  Idol- 
ized eniporor.  Curlnus,  brother  of  Nnmorlnn,  mnrchod  ngnlnst  the 
usuriHT  ami  defeated  him  in  M(L>8iu;  but  was  liimsolf  niurdered  by  one 
of  bis  own  ollicers,  and  bis  army  came  over  to  Dioeletian.  A  new  era 
in  tlie  history  of  Home  was  now  l)enun.  To  ^uard  against  the  violence 
wliieli  luul  tlestroyiMl  so  many  emperors,  tlie  sovereign  was  surrounde<l 
by  retinues  of  soldiers,  and.  far  from  making  any  pretense,  like  AugU8- 
tu8  i?,24iK  of  republican  simplicity,  be  put  on  all  the  nuignitl<ence  of 
an  oriental  monarch.  His  robe  was  cloth  of  gold;  his  shoes,  of  purple 
silk,  were  embroldere<l  with  Jewels;  a  kingly  diadem,  such  as  Ciesar 
could  not  venture^  to  wear,  encircled  his  brow;  and  he  could  only  be 
nppr«>ached  l)y  a  complicated  series  of  ceremonies.  Some  said  the  head 
of  the  Dalmatian  pciisiint  had  been  turned  by  his  elevation;  but,  in 
fact,  Diocletian  h-id  carefully  planned  all  this  as  a  necessary  nart  of  his 
new  sciiciiic  of  fiovcrnment,  t(»gether  with  the  military  ana  tM)litieal 
changes,  and  his  success  niijiht  seem  to  have  proved  the  wisdom  of  his 
plan.  "He  lound  the  empire  weak  and  shattered,  threatened  with  Im- 
medhite  dissolution  from  intestine  discord  and  external  violence.  He 
left  It  strong  and  compact,  at  peace  within,  and  triumphant  abroad, 
stretching  from  the  Tigris  to  the  Nile,  from  the  shores  of  Holland  to 
the  Euphrates." 

The  worst  effect  of  the  revolution  was,  perhaps,  In  the  increased  bur- 
dens it  Imposeti  upon  the  people.  To  support  four  courts,  with  the 
palaces  and  other  costly  buildings  which  the  new  plan  recjuired,  with 
the  increased  retinues  and  guards,  both  civil  and  military,  was  more 
than  the  stiirved  and  exhausted  empire  could  bear.  Great  regions  of 
once  fertile  country  had  become  depopulated  by  centuries  of  civil  war; 
and  the  diminished  numbers  who  had  to  support  the  increased  bur- 
dens, endured  untold  miseries  at  every  visit  of  the  tax-gatherers. 

4.  "  In  the  close  of  May  or  beginning  of  June,  Nicsea  wa«  approached 
by  the  representatives  of  the  Christian  Church  from  every  part  of  the 
Eiastern  Empire  and  from  a  few  parts  of  the  Western  also.  .  .  .  The 
posting  arrangements  of  the  empire  made  such  a  convention  far  more 
easy  than  would  have  been  the  case  at  any  period  In  the  Middle  Ages. 
The  great  lines  of  communication  were  like  railroads,  straight  as  arrows, 
from  one  extremity  of  the  empire  to  the  other.  From  Bordeaux  to 
Constantinople,  a  few  years  later,  we  have  the  record  of  200  post-stations 
and  91  inns— an  Inn  at  the  interval  of  every  half-day's  journey. 

"  There  were  present  the  learned  and  the  Illiterate,  courtiers  and  peas- 
ants, old  and  young,  aged  bishops  on  the  verge  of  the  grave,  beardless 
deacons  just  entering  on  their  office;  and  It  was  an  assembly  in  which 
the  dilference  between  a^e  and  youth  was  of  more  than  ordinary  sig- 
nificance, for  it  coincided  with  a  marked  transition  in  the  history  of 
the  world.  The  new  generation  had  been  brought  up  in  peace  and  quiet. 
They  could  just  remember  the  joy  diffused  through  the  Christian  com- 
munities by  the  edict  of  toleration  (§2W)),  published  in  their  boybcKxl; 
but  they  had  themselves  suffered  nothing.  Not  so  the  older,  and  by 
far  the  larger,  part  of  the  assembly.  They  had  lived  through  the  last 
and  worst  of  tne  persecutions,  and  they  came  like  a  regiment  out  of 
some  frightful  siege  or  battle,  decimated  and  mutilated  by  the  tortures 
or  the  hardships  they  had  undergone.  .  .  .  It  was  on  their  character 
as  an  army  of  confessors  and  martyrs,  quite  as  much  as  on  their  char- 
acter {IS  an  CEkiumenical  Council  that  their  authority  reposed.  In  this 
resi>ect,  no  other  council  approached  them."  .  .  .  "The  whole  assem- 
bly rose.  .  .  .  and  then,  for  the  first  time,  set  their  admiring  gaze  on 
Constantlne,  the  conqueror,  the  august,  the  great.  Gazing  at  his  splen- 
did figure,  as  he  pa.ssed  up  the  hall  between  their  ranks,  remembering, 
too,  what  he  htid  done  for  their  faith  and  for  their  church— we  may 
well  believe  that  the  simple  and  the  worldly  Ixjth  looked  upon  hlra  as 
though  he  were  an  angel  of  God,  descended  straight  from  heaven,  .  .  . 
There  was  a  gentleness  and  sweetness  in  his  voice  which  arrested  the 
attention  of  all.  .  .  .  '  It  has,  my  friends,  been  the  ol)ject  of  my  high- 
est wishes  to  enjoy  ycrur  sacred  company.  ...  I  rejoice  at  the  mere 
sight  of  your  assembly.  But  the  moment  that  I  shall  consider  the  chief 
fulfillment  of  my  prayers  will  be  when  I  see  you  all  joined  together  in 
heart  and  soul,  and  determining  on  one  peaceful  harmony  for  all,  which 
it  should  well  become  you  who  are  consecratetl  to  God,  to  preach  to 
others.'" 


CHAPTER    XVIII. 


THE    NORTHERN    BARBARIANS. 


Captives  in  War. 


URING  these  last  years 
of  the  Roman  Empire 
in  the  West,  the  main 
interest  centers  upon  the 
swarms  of  free  warriors  who 
were  pressing  down  upon  it 
from  the  plains  of  central  and 
northern  Europe.  Though 
rude  in  their  ways  of  living, 
these  people  —  with  the  ex- 
ception of  one  tribe,  soon  to 
be  mentioned — belonged  to 
the  same  Indo-Germanic  race 
(§6)  with  the  Greeks  and 
Romans;  they  had  much  of 
the  same  capacity  for  art, 
science,  literature,  and  go^^- 
ernment ;  and  they  were  able 


to  appreciate  and  admire  in  the  Roman  cities  the  proofs 
of  a  civilization  far  beyond  what  they  had  yet  been  able  to 
create.  One  of  their  great  chiefsMeclared  that  he  would 
rather  renew  and  perpetuate  the  fame  of  Rome  by  Gothic 
strength,  than  found  a  new  Gothic  Empire  of  which  he 
himself  should  be  the  Caesar  Augustus. 

274.  With  such  feelings  many  Germans  had  enlisted  in 
the  Roman  armies,  even  in  the  first  days  of  the  P^mpire; 
and,  after  the  time  of  Constantine,  the  "barbarians"  con- 
stituted the  great  body  of  the  legions.  These  gigantic 
warriors  were  far  braver  and  hardier  than  the  people  of 
(158) 


THE  GOTHS  AND  THE  HUNS.  159 


the  south;  and  their  virtues  often  put  Romans  to  shame. 
As  soldiers  they  were  faithful  to  the  emperors  who  em- 
ployed them ;  but  this  did  not  prevent  their  free  country- 
men from  being  the  terror  of  the  declining  Empire.  The 
principal  German  tribes  were  the  Goths,  P>anks,  Alemanni, 
Saxons,  and  Burgundians. 

275.  As  early  as  the  reign  of  Valerian  (§  261),  the 
Franks  and  Alemanni  had  overrun  (iaul.  Italy,  and  Spain, 
and  had  crossed  the  straits  into  Africa.  The  Goths  had 
built  fleets  from  the  woods  near  the  Danube,  with  which 
they  sailed  along  the  coasts  of  Asia  Minor  and  Greece, 
j)lundering  and  burning  many  cities,  among  others  Ephesus, 
Corinth,  and  Athens.  Western  Europe  was,  meanwhile, 
afflicted  by  swarms  of  Saxon  pirates,  while  Roman  Britain 
was  ravaged  by  the  Picts  and  Scots.  The  emperor  Val- 
entin'ian  —  the  successor  of  Jovian — and  his  great  general, 
Theodo'sius,  gained  important  victories  over  the  western 
marauders. 

276.  The  Gothic  kingdom  of  Her'manric  now  extended 
from  the  l)nnul)c  and  Euxine  to  the  Baltic;  but,  under  the 
reigns  of  Valentinian  in  the  west,  and  his  brother  Va'lens 
in  the  east,  the  Huns,  a  new  race  of  savages — 

m^re  fierce,  hideous,  and  terrible  than  had  yet  ^^ 

been  seen  —  appeared  from  Asia  and  conquered  the  Ostro- 
goths, north  of  the  Black  Sea.  Their  brethren,  the  Western 
Goths,  or  Visigoths,  begged  the  protection  of  the  Roman 
emperor  in  the  East.  Valens  gave  them  lands;  and  a 
million  of  men,  women,  and  children  crossed  the  Danube. 
But  the  Roman  officers,  appointed  to  receive  and  feed  this 
hungry  crowd,  were  so  false  to  their  trust  that  the  Goths 
were  driven  to  revolt.  In  a  great  battle  near  Hadrianople, 
Valens  and  two-thirds  of  his  army  were  slain. 

277.  His  successor,  Theodosius,^  being  called  to  interfere 
in  western  Europe  in  behalf  of  the  sons  of  Valentinian, 
united  the  whole  Roman  dominion  for  the  last  time  under 


i6o  THE   ANCIENT  WORLD. 

one  sovereign.  This  great  emperor  well  deserved  to  be 
called  ''Theodosius  the  Great."  He  made  friends  of  the 
Goths  by  settling  colonies  of  them  in  Thrace  and  Asia 
Minor.  He  put  an  end  to  pagan  worship  in  every  part 
of  the  Empire,  demolishing  the  temples  or  turning  them 
into  Christian  churches.  Yet,  by  one  act  of  needless 
cruelty  he  incurred  the  displeasure  of  the  famous  Arch- 
bishop Ambrose  of  Milan,  and  was  forbidden  to  enter  a 
church  until  he  had  publicly  confessed  his  guilt.  Theo- 
dosius  submitted,  and,  after  eight  months,  was  restored  to 
his   standing   as  a   Christian. 

278.  Upon  his  death,  A.  D.  395,  the  Empire  was 
divided  between  his  sons  Arca'dius  and  Hono'rius;  and 
the  East  and  the  West  were  never  again  united  except 
in  name.  Al'aric,^  king  of  the  Visigoths,  was  placed  at 
the  head  of  the  imperial  armies  in  the  East,  and  we  can 
not  tell  whether  it  was  as  Gothic  king  or  Roman  general 
that  he  three  times  invaded  the  dominions  of  Honorius. 
The  first  time  (A.  D.  400-403),  he  was  defeated  and 
driven  back  by  Stil'icho,  the  guardian  and  minister  of  the 
young  emperor;  five  years  later  he  advanced  to  Rome, 
and  only  withdrew  on  receiving  an  enormous  ransom,  after 
thousands  of  its  citizens  had  died  of  famine  or  pestilence; 
the  third  time,  the  "eternal  city"  was  actually  taken  and 

given  up  for  six  days  to  plunder  and  massacre. 

The  spoils  of  Asia,  brought  home  by  Sulla, 
Pompey,  and  others,  from  their  great  campaigns,  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  barbarians.  Alaric  died  during  his  retreat 
from  Rome. 

279.  His  brother-in-law,  Adol'phus,  who  succeeded  him, 
founded  the  new  kingdom  of  the  Visigoths  in  Spain. 
Nearly  at  the  same  time  the  Vandals  conquered  Roman 
Africa;  the  Franks  settled  themselves  in  northern,  and  the 
Burgundians  in  eastern  France.  Britain  was  left  to  be  con- 
quered by  the  Saxons  and   kindred   tribes  from  Germany. 


MAP  No.  VI. 


EMPERORS  OF  ROME. 


Augustus                     B.  C 

31- 

Gallienus                     A.  D 

.260. 

Tiberius                        A.  D 

.  14. 

Claudius  II. 

268. 

Caligula 

37. 

Aurelian 

270. 

Claudius 

41. 

Tacitus 

275. 

Nero 

54. 

Florian,  Probus 

276, 

Galba 

68. 

Carus 

282. 

Otho 

69. 

Carinus  and  Numerian 

283. 

Vitellius 

69. 

Diocletian  with  Maximian 

284. 

Vespasian 

69. 

Constantius  with  Galerius 

305. 

Titus 

79- 

Constantine  I.  with  Galerius 

Domitian 

81. 

Severus,  and  Maxentius 

>  306. 

Nerva 

96. 

"    with  Licinius 

307. 

Trajan 

98. 

"   with  Maximinus 

308. 

Hadrian 

117. 

"   alone 

323- 

Antoninus  Pius 

138. 

Constantine  II.,  Constantius 

M.  Aurelius  Antoninus 

161. 

II.,  Constans 

337. 

Commodus 

180. 

Julian 

361. 

Pertinax 

193. 

Jovian 

363. 

Didius  Julianus 

193. 

Valentinian  I 

364- 

Septimius  Severus 

193. 

Gratian  and  Valentinian  II 

375- 

Caracalla  and  Geta 

211. 

Theodosius  (East  and  West)  392. 

"        alone 

212. 

Honorius 

395. 

Macrinus 

217, 

Theodosius  II.  (E.  and  W.) 

423- 

Elagabalus 

218. 

Valentinian  III. 

425. 

Alexander  Severus 

222. 

Maximus,  Avitus 

455- 

Maximinus 

235. 

Majorian 

457. 

Gordians  (father  and  son) 

238. 

Libius  Severus 

461. 

Philip  the  Arabian 

244. 

Anthemius 

467. 

Decius 

249. 

Olybrius,  Glycerins       472, 

473- 

Gallus 

251. 

Julius  Nepos 

474. 

Valerian 

253. 

Romulus  Augustulus     475, 

476. 

West    from.    3   Greenwich, 


{Coi^yright,  1877,  ^y 


ntuerp,  hru^g  f  Co 


ROMAN   WRITERS. 


Ibets  and  Dramatists. 
B.  C. 

Livius  Andronicus,  240. 

Naevius,  235 :  Tragedies,  Com- 
edies. 

Ennius,  239-169:  "Annals." 

Plautus,  254-184:  Comedies. 

Terence,  195-159. 

Pacuvius,  220-130:  Tragedies. 

Attius,  170-90:  Tragedies. 

Lucilius,  148-103 :  Satires. 

Lucretius,  95-51  :  Philosophical 
Poem. 

Catullus,  87-47  :  Lyrics. 

Virgil,  70-19:  the  "  .^neids," 
"Georgics,"  and  "Bucol- 
ics." 

Horace,  65-8  :  Odes,  Satires,  and 
Epistles. 

Tibullus,  about  54-18:  Elegies. 

Propertius,  born  ab.  51  :  Elegies. 

Ovid,  B.  C.  43-A.  D.  18:  "The 
Metamorphoses,"    "  Fasti," 
and  "  Epistles." 
A.  D. 

Phaedrus,  25 :  Fables. 

Persius,  34-62  :  Satires. 

Juvenal,  about  100:  Satires. 

Martial,  43-104:  Epigrams. 

Lucan,    39-65 :     Epic    Poem, 
"Pharsalia." 

Statius,  61-96  :  ''  Silviae,"  "  The- 
baid,"  and  "Achilleid.  ' 


Historians. 
B.  C. 
Fabius  Pictor,  216. 
Cincius  Alimentus,  218-190. 
Cato  the  Censor,  234-149  :  "  The 
Origins,"  "Agriculture,"  etc. 
Varro,    116-28:    "Agriculture," 

etc 
Juhus   Caesar,    100-44:    "  Com- 
i    ,     mentaries  on  Gallic  War." 
Sallust,    86-34:     "  Jugurthine 
War"  and  "Conspiracy  of 
Catiline." 
Livy,  59-A.  D.  17:  "Annals." 

A.  D. 
Tacitus,    about    57-117:     "An- 
nals,"  "Histories,"    "Ger- 
many," etc. 
i  Suetonius,  about  70-117. 

I       Philosophers  and  Orators. 
I  B.  C. 

1  Cicero,  106-43:  "  Tusculan  Dis- 
putations," "Duties,"  "Old 
Age,"  "  Friendship,"  etc. 
A.  D. 
j  Seneca,  died  65 :  Epistles,  etc. 
Pliny  the  Elder,  23-79  :  "  Natural 
I  History." 

'  Phny     the     Younger,     61-110: 
"  Panegyric  on  Trajan,"  etc. 
Celsus,  20 :  Medical  Treatises. 
'  Pomponius  Mela,  45  :  Geograph- 
i  ical  Treatise. 


Note. — The  dates  are  from  Smith's  Dictionary  of  Biography,  with  a  few  additions 
from  Woodward  and  Gates'  Encyclopaedia  of  Chronology.  In  some  cases  they  arc 
conjectural,  as  no  ancient  authorities  exist. 


FAIJ.   OF  THE  WESTERN  EMPIRE, 


a8o.  The  Roman  generals  were  called  to  fight  with 
At'tila,  king  of  the  Huns,  a  monster  so  hideous  and  hith- 
erto so  irresistible,  that  he  was  known  to  the  terror-stricken 
world  of  his  time  as  the  Scourge  of  (lod.  He  had  rapidly 
built  up  a  kingdom  extending  from  the  Rhine  to  the  Volga, 
and  from  the  Black  Sea  to  the  Baltic;  and  a  host  of 
subject  chiefs  served  in  his  army  of  700,000  men.  In  a 
great  battle  at  Chalons,  he  was  completely  over- 
thrown by  the  combined  force  of  Romans  and  '  *^' 
Goths.  Within  two  years  he  had  collected  a  fresh  horde 
of  barbarians,  with  which  he  ravaged  northern  Italy  and 
threatened  Rome;  but  a  sudden  death  ended  his  career. 

281.  A  series  of  crimes  and  quarrels  at  court,  drew 
the  Vandals  into  Italy.  They  plundered  Rome 
fourteen  days,  and  sailed  away  to  Carthage  '  '*^^' 
laden  with  all  the  treasure  which  the  Goths  had  left. 
They  conquered  the  islands  of  Sicily  and  Sardinia,  from 
which  they  could  easily  descend  at  any  time  upon  the 
Italian  coasts.  After  half  a  dozen  insignificant  emperors 
had  been  set  up  and  put  down  by  the  German  chiefs  of 
the  army,  Rom'ulus  Augus'tulus,  a  harmless  boy,  became 
the  last  of  the  Roman  Emperors  of  the  West.  But  the 
Goths  wanted  to  be  paid  for  their  services  by  one-third 
of  all  the  lands  in  Italy.  Being  refused,  they  deposed 
Augustulus,  and  conferred  sovereign  power  upon  their 
own  chief,  Odo'acer. 

282.  The  Roman  Senate  now  sent  the  purple  robe  and 
diadem,  which  had  been  worn  by  Augustulus, 

to  Ze'no,  emperor  of  the   East,   acknowledging 
that   Constantinople   was   the    seat    of  government    for   all 
the  world,    but    requesting   that   Odoacer  might  rule   Italy 
with  the  title  of  Patrician. 

Trace  the  boundaries  of  Hermanric's  kingdom ;   of  Attila's.     Site 
of  Attila's    defeat.      Settlements    of   Goths,    Franks,    Vandals,    Bur- 
gundians,    Saxons. 
Hist.  —  II. 


1 62  THE  ANCIENT   WORLD. 


NOTES. 

1.  This  was  Athaulf,  or  Adolphus,  the  Visigoth,  brother-in-law  and 
successor  of  Alarlc  (see  i  278).  See  Bi-yce's  ^'■Holy  Roman  Empire,''^  Cliapter 
III.,  for  a  very  interesting  sketch  of  tlie  relation  of  the  bai'barians  to 
tlie  declining  Roman  power. 

2.  Tlie  Emperor  Theodosius  I.,  was  a  son  of  the  General  Theodosius 
named  In  §  275.  The  western  countries  of  Europe  were  always  inclined 
to  be  independent;  and  Maximus,  a  Spaniard,  now  made  himself  master, 
for  a  time,  of  Gaul,  Spain,  and  Britain.  Gratian,  the  elder  son  of  Val- 
entinian,  was  put  to  death  by  the  usurper  at  Lyons;  and  his  brother, 
Valentinian  II.,  gained,  at  first,  by  the  intervention  of  Theodosius,  only 
Italy,  Africa,  and  western  Illyricum.  But  Maximus,  not  content  with  the 
rich  countries  that  he  had  usurped,  invaded  Italy.  The  feeble  Valentin- 
ian could  do  nothing  in  his  own  defense;  but  Theodosius  again  took 
up  his  cause,  and  Maximus  was  defeated  and  slain,  A.  D.  388.  Four 
years  later,  Valentinian  II.  was  murdered,  probably  by  order  of  Arbo- 
gastes,  general-in-chief  of  his  armies,  who,  not  daring  to  assume  the 
imperial  crown  himself,  set  up  Eugenius,  his  former  secretary,  as  Em- 
peror of  the  West.  Theodosius  marched  to  avenge  the  murdered  Val- 
entinian, whose  sister  was  his  wife.  He  was  victorious  as  before.  Eu- 
genius was  beheaded  in  the  very  presence  of  his  conqueror,  and  Arbo- 
gastes,  after  wandering,  nearly  starved,  in  the  desolate  mountain  passes, 
killed  himself  with  his  own  sword.  Tlieodosius  reigned  four  months 
over  the  vast  dominions  of  Augustus*  but,  upon  his  death,  at  Milan,  in 
the  January  following  the  defeat  or  Eugenius,  his  son  Honorius  re- 
ceived the  crown  of  the  western  empire,  while  Arcadius  reigned  at  Con- 
stantinople over  the  Roman  dominion  in  the  East. 

Theodosius  was  not  baptized  until  the  end  of  the  first  year  of  his 
reign;  but  he  immediately  signalized  his  zeal  by  an  edict,  which  de- 
nounced not  only  pagans,  but  those  who  held  the  Christian  faith  in 
any  other  form  than  that  which  had  been  authorized  by  the  Council 
of  Nicsea.  In  May,  381,  he  convened,  at  Constantinople,  a  second  gen- 
eral council  to  confirm  and  complete  the  work  of  its  predecessor.  The 
crowning  victory  over  paganism  was  the  destruction  of  the  colossal  im- 
age of  Serapis  and  his  magnificent  temple  at  Alexandria.  Egypt  was 
the  home  of  the  most  monsti'ous  superstitions,  and  the  worship  of  Se- 
rapis was  among  the  most  widely  spread  and  deeply  seated.  It  must 
be  remembered  that  even  Christians,  at  this  time,  believed  the  pagan 
deities  to  be  living  and  powerful  beings,  though  evil  in  character;  and 
there  was  a  general  fear  that  Serapis  would  avenge  any  violence  done 
to  his  dwelling-place.  At  last,  a  soldier,  braver  than  the  rest,  mounted 
a  ladder,  and  with  his  axe  aimed  a  heavy  blow  at  the  cheek  of  the 
image.  The  face  fell,  and  no  harm  came  to  the  assailant.  Then  the 
crowd,  relieved  of  its  terrors,  pulled  down  the  monstrous  frame  and 
dragged  it  in  triumph  through  the  streets  of  Alexandria. 

The  crime  for  which  the  emperor  suffered  penance  at  Milan  was  a 
general  massacre  which  he  ordered  at  Thessalonica,  capital  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Macedonia.  His  provocation  had  been  serious,  but  the  punish- 
ment far  exceeded  the  offense.  In  A.  D.  390,  a  charioteer  of  the  circus 
had  been  imprisoned  for  just  cause;  the  people,  after  vainly  denyind- 
iiig  his  appearance,  broke  out  into  a  riot,  murdered  the  general  and  his 
officers,  and  dragged  their  bodies  about  the  streets.  This  was  the  act 
of  the  lowest  of  the  mob;  but,  to  avenge  it,  Theodosius  sent  an  army 
of  barbarian  mercenaries.  Invited  all  the  Thessalonians  to  witness  the 
games  in  the  circus,  and,  when  thousands  were  assembled,  commanded 
an  indiscriminate  slaughter.  Innocent  and  guilty  perished  alike,  some 
say  to  the  number  of  14,000,  othei-s  estimate  it  at  half  that  number.  The 
personal  humiliation  of  the  emperor,  tliough  it  might  prove  his  return 
to  right  feeling,  could  not  undo  his  atrocious  act. 

3.  Alaric  had  studied  the  arts  of  war  under  Theodosius,  who  well 
knew  how  to  make  friends  of  the  Goths  and  to  strengthen  his  armies 
by  the  enrollment  of  their  brave  youth.  As  soon  as  the  great  emperor 
was  dead,  the  Visigoths  threw  off  the  imperial  yoke,  chose  Alaric  to  be 
their  leader,  and,  issuing  from  Thrace,  overran  Greece  and  captured 
Athens.    Arcadius,  alarmed  by  his  successes,  tried  to  enlist  the  Gothic 


NOTES,  163 


Iciutor  on  his  own  side  by  making  him  iiia^i.  i  ;;.  noral  of  the  imperial 
Hrnilos;  and,  as  tlic  eastern  anci  wpstoin  eniuiros  wore  now  at  war,  Alarlc 
was  sent  to  invaile  Italy  in  A.  D.  MU.  Tlie  Kniperor  Honorius  abandoneil 
Slilan  at  the  apnroaeli  of  tlie  (iotlis,  and  sluit  Idnisi'lf  up  in  tlie  fort- 
ress of  Asta.  Alarie  l)esieKe(i  lilni  tliere.  but  Stillelio  advanced  to  tlie 
relief  of  his  master  and  Kainini  an  advantajje  over  the  invaders  at  Pol- 
lentia.  The  (JoMis  were  still  more  diM-lslvely  defeated  at  Verona,  and 
Alarie  now  a«ree<l  to  leave  Italy  and  to  serve  Honorius  jis  master-Ren- 
enil  of  the  Roman  forces  in  western  Illyri(*um,  turninu;  his  arms  against 
his  late  master  Arcadius.  lUit  the  fame  of  Alarie  s<K)n  drew  throuKM  of 
(iernuin  youth  to  his  pei-sonal  service,  and  he  resumed  his  plans  aKamst 
Italy.  In  A.  1).  -WW  he  sent  messenKei-s  to  Honorius,  demanding;  an  ex- 
travaKant  reward  for  his  three  years^  service,  amd  intimating  that,  if  tills 
were  refuseil,  war  would  be  the  result.  Tlie  Roman  senate  voted  for 
war  rather  than  submission  to  this  haughty  demand;  but  the  great  in- 
fluence of  Stilicho  overruled  their  objection,  and  pei"suaded  them  to 
buy  peace  with  4(H)()  pounds'  weight  of  gold.  This  was  done.  But  while 
Alanc  and  his  Goths  were  still  at  the  foot  of  the  Alps,  the  weak  and 
cowartlly  Honorius  procured  the  assassination  of  Stilicho,  with  his  son 
and  almost  all  his  offlcei-s.  At  the  same  time,  the  wives  and  children 
of  (iothlc  soldiei-s  in  the  Roman  service  were  massacred  in  the  Roman 
cities.  This  insjine  and  wanton  outrage  seemed  designed  to  iirovoke 
the  vengeance  of  Alarlc  Just  when  the  only  man  who  could  have  re- 
sisted him  was  dead.  He  crossed  the  Venetian  plains  without  meeting 
a  man  in  arms,  marched  on  Rome,  and  besieged  the  city.  Again  a 
heavy  nmsom  induced  him  to  retire,  but  Honorius  even  now  failed  to 
keep* his  agreement.s,  and  Alarlc  besiege<l  Rome  a  second  time  In  A.  D. 
409.  In  spite  of  all  provocations,  he  tried  to  save  the  city  from  the 
worst  consequences  of  war,  charging  ills  soldiers  to  respect  Die  churches, 
and,  as  far  as  possible,  to  spare  innocent  lives.  ( "on Am* 'i ices  were  In 
progress  with  the  imperial  ministers,  when  the  Goths  in  Ravenna  were 
again  treacherously  assaulted  by  order  of  Honorius.  Alaric's  patience 
was  now  exhausted,  and,  entering  Rome  August  24,  410.  he  gave  the  city 
up  to  pillage  for  six  days,  still  under  the  same  restrictions  a.s  to  life, 
and  sacred  things.  Tlien  he  led  off  his  troo|is;  but  soon  afterward, 
while  besieging  Cosenza,  in  Calabria,  the  great  chief  died,  and  was  bur- 
led, by  his  own  desire,  in  the  bed  of  the  little  river  Busentlnus.  which 
had  been  turned  from  Its  course  by  the  labor  of  a  multitude  of  his  cap- 
tives. "The  royal  sepulcher,  adorned  with  the  splendid  spoils  and  tro- 
phies of  Rome,  was  constructed  In  the  vacant  bed;  the  waters  were 
then  restored  to  their  natural  channel,  and  the  secret  spot  where  the 
remains  of  Alarlc  had  been  deposited  was  forever  concealed  by  the  in- 
human massacre  of  the  prisoners  who  had  been  employed  to  execute 
the  work."'— G'i66on. 

The  story  of  Alarlc  well  illustrates  the  weakness  of  the  divided  em- 

{)ire,  and  the  vacillating  policy  of  the  imperial  ministers,  who,  while 
earing  the  Goths,  often  used  them  as  instruments  of  their  own  venge- 
ance upon  their  rivals. 

4.  Attila  succeeded,  about  A.  D.  432,  to  his  hereditary  chieftainship 
of  the  nomadic  Huns  north  of  the  Danube.  The  victory  at  Chalons  was 
the  last  one  ever  gained  iiy  the  armies  of  the  western  Roman  empire, 
and  the  contlict  which  it  ended  was  one  of  the  most  memorable  and  de- 
cisive battles  in  history.  To  all  human  views,  it  settled  the  great  ques- 
tion whether  modern  Europe  should  be  Teuton  or  Tartar.  The  Goths 
were  already  Christian;  their  rude  energy  was  well  adapted  to  the  laws 
and  institutions  of  civilized  life  The  Huns  were  savage,  heathen,  de- 
structive; mighty  to  ravage  and  desolate,  but  never  to  build  and  or- 
f;anize  a  state.  Most  of  what  we  mlmire  in  European  history  would 
lave  been  reversed  if  Attila  had  gained  the  battle  of  Chalons  He  died 
in  Hungary  A.  D.  A5A  or  ^A.  The  terror  and  excitement  he  had  caused 
are  voiced  In  many  old  German  songs  and  legends,  notably  in  the 
Nibelungen  Lied. 


QUESTIONS   FOR    REVIEW.— BOOK    I. 


Section 

1.  How  are  men  divided  in  their  manner  of  living?  i,   2 

2.  What  are  the  main  divisions  of  History  ?  5 

3.  Describe  the  three  great  families  of  mankind  and  their 

earliest  settlements.  6,  7 

4.  The  character  and  history  of  the  Chaldseans.  7,  8 

5.  Name  the  greatest  Assyrian  kings  and  their  doings.  9-15 

6.  Describe  Media  and  the  Medes.  16 

7.  The  Babylonians  and  their  greatest  king.  17-21 

8.  Phoenician  commerce,  government,  and  history.  22-25 

9.  Name  four  Syrian  nations.  26 

10.  Give  some  account  of  the  nations  in  Asia  Minor.  27-29 

11.  Tell  the  story  of  the  Israelites  before  Saul.  30-32 

12.  Describe  the  three  kings  of  all  Israel.  33-35 

13.  The  two  Hebrew  kingdoms  after  their  separation.        36-38 

14.  The  Jews  under  Persian  rule.  39,   40 

15.  The  characters  of  the  Medes  and  Persians.  41,  62-64 

16.  The  career  of  Cyrus.  42-45 

17.  Of  Cambyses  and  his  successor.  45-47 

18.  The  history  and  dominion  of  Darius  I.  48-52 

19.  The  career  of  Xerxes.  53-55 

20.  Sketch  the    history  of  Persia  under  his  successors.  5^-59 

21.  Describe  the  fall  of  the  Persian  Empire.  59 -61 

22.  Africa  and  the  Nile.                    "  65 

23.  Who  settled  Egypt  ?  7,  66 

24.  Describe  Egyptian  arts  and  religion.  67,   73~75>   79>  ^^ 

25.  The  different  castes  or  ranks.  76-78 

26.  Sketch  their  history.  68-72 

27.  The  history  of  Carthage;    its  government,  etc.  81-84 

28.  Of  what  race  and  character  were  the  Greeks?  85-88 

29.  Name  some  of  the  heroes  and  their  doings.  90-92 

30.  Describe  the  manners  and  religion  of  the  early  Greeks.      93-99 

31.  Their  migrations  and  changes  of  government.  100,    loi 
(164) 


QUESTIONS'- BOOK  I.  165 

32.  What  bonds  of  union  among  the  Greeks  ?  102  -  104 

33.  Describe  Spartan  character  and  customs.  106-108 

34.  Name  some  early  wars  of  Sparta.  109 

35.  Describe  the  Athenians  and  their  first  two  lawgivers,  no- 112 

36.  The  Tyranny  of  Pisistratus  and  his  sons.  113 

37.  How  were  future  tyrannies  guarded  against?  114 

38.  Describe  the  Persian  invasions  of  Greece.          52-55,  115- 117 

39.  Tell  something  of  Pausanias,  Cimon,  Themistocles.  119- 122 

40.  The  story  of  Pericles.  123-127 

41.  Of  Alcibiades  and  the  fall  of  Athens.  130-133 

42.  What  can  you  tell  of  Socrates?  134,    154 

43.  How  was  the  Corinthian  War  ended?  135 

44.  Describe  the  rise  and  fall  of  Theban  supremacy.  136,    137 

45.  How  did  Greece  become  subject  to  Macedon  ?  138,    140 

46.  Why  was  the  poetry  of  Greece  older  than  its  prose?  142,    143 

47.  W'hat  can  you  tell  of  Homer?                                      94,  lOO,    144 

48.  Of  Hesiod  and  his  works?  145 

49.  Name  some  great  lyric  poets.  146,    147 

50.  Describe  the  theatre  at  Athens,  and  name  four  masters 

of  dramatic  writing.  I48,    149 

51.  The  greatest  Greek  historians.  150,    151 

52.  Describe  three  schools  of  Greek  philosophy.  152,    153 

53.  What  can  you  tell  of  Plato  and  Aristotle?  154,    155 

54.  What  can  you  say  of  Greek  architecture  and  sculpture?  156 

55.  Name  some  of  the  most  celebrated  works.  157-^59 

56.  Tell  the  story  of  Alexander.  160-  166 

57.  How  was  his  empire  divided  after  his  death?  167 

58.  Describe  the  Syrian  kingdom,  and  some  of  its  kings.  168,    169 

59.  What  new  dominions  arose  in  the  East?  169 

60.  W^ho  were  the  Maccabees?  171 

61.  Describe  Ptolemy  I,  and  his  successors.  172-174 

62.  W'hat  became  of  Macedonia  and  Greece?  176-178 

63.  Who  and  what  were  the  Romans?  179,    180 

64.  Name  the  Roman  kings.  181 

65.  Describe  the  government  of  the  Republic.  182-185 

66.  The  religion  of  the  Romans.  186-189 

67.  The  patrician  and  plebeian  contests.        191 -194;  196,    197 

68.  The  Gallic  invasion.  195 

69.  The  Samnites.  198 

70.  Tell  two  stories  of  the  Latin  War.  199,   200 

71.  Describe  the  Samnite  Wars.  201,   202 


i66 


QUESTIONS.— BOOK  I. 


']2.  What  was  done  with  lands  conquered  from  the  ^^ui 

73.  Tell  the  story  of  Pyrrhus. 

74.  Describe  Roman  colonies  and  provinces.  205, 

75.  How  did  Rome  become  a  maritime  power? 

76.  Describe  the  career  of  Hannibal. 

77.  The  last  Punic  War. 

78.  What  was  done  with  Greece  and  Spain? 

79.  Describe  the  dangers  of   Rome,  and  the  efforts  of 

the  Gracchi. 

80.  Tell  the  history  of  Marius  and  Sulla. 

81.  Describe  the  Gladiator's  War. 

82.  The  Conspiracy  of  Catiline. 

83.  The  history  of  Pompey. 

84.  Of  Julius  Ccesar. 

85.  Of  Crassus. 

86.  Of  Caesar  Octavianus. 

87.  What  change  of  government  did  he  make  ? 

88.  Describe  his  three  successors. 

89.  The  character  and  reign  of  Nero. 

90.  Vespasian  and  his  sons. 

91.  Describe  the  reigns  of  the  "  Five  Good  Emperors." 

92.  The  state  of  the  empire  under  Commodus. 

93.  What  were  the  Praetorian  Guards? 

94.  Tell  the  history  of  Septimius  Severus  and  his  sons. 

95.  What  contrast  between  Elagabalus  and  his  successor  ? 

96.  What  calamities  mark  the  reign  of  Valerian? 

97.  Describe  his  successors. 

98.  What  changes  were  made  by  Diocletian  ? 

99.  Tell  the  history  of  Constantine. 
100.  Of  his  sons  and  nephew. 

loi.  What  emperors  persecuted  Christians?  250,   254, 

102.  Name  and  describe  the  chief  German  tribes. 

103.  Describe  Attila  and  his  Huns. 

104.  Theodosius  the  Great,  and  the  divisions  of  the 

Empire. 

105.  The  Goths  and  Vandals  in  Italy. 

106.  Who  settled  in  England  ;    in  France ;    in  Spain ;    in 

northern  Africa? 

107.  What    disposal   was   made   of   the   Western    Roman 

Empire  ? 


203 

204 

209, 

244 

206- 

-208 

210- 

-214 

215 

216 

217- 

-219 

220- 

-226 

227 

229 

228- 

-235 

230- 

-238 

231, 

232 

238- 

-245 

241- 

-244 

246- 

-249 

250, 

251 

252 

253, 

254 

255 

244, 

256 

256, 

257 

258, 

259 

261 

262 

263- 

-266 

266- 

-269 

270- 

-272 

260, 

265 

273- 

-275 

276, 

280 

277, 

278 

278, 

281 

279 

282 

BOOK   II.— MEDIAEVAL   HISTORY. 


INTRODUCTION. 

283.  When  the  empire  of  the  Cassars  was  falling  into 
the  hands  of  barbarians,  and  Rome  itself — the  Eternal 
City — was  plundered  by  Goths  and  Vandals,  most  people 
thought  the  end  of  the  world  had  come.  The  old  world 
had,  indeed,  passed  away:  the  magnificence  of  Persia,  the 
learning  of  Egypt,  the  brilliancy  of  Greece,  the  majesty 
of  Rome  were  all  in  the  past;  but  out  of  the  northern 
forests  had  come  the  founders  of  new  nations,  who  now 
possess  Europe  and  America,  India  and  Australia,  and 
many  islands  of  which  Rome  never  dreamed. 

284.  Mediaeval  history  covers  the  thousand  years  from  the 
time  when  the  barbarian  Odoacer  became  king  of  Italy  to 
the  time  when  the  present  system  of  European  nations  was 
established.  It  is  to  be  studied  in  two  parts:  the  first  six 
hundred  years,  when  the  destructive  passions  of  men  were 
in  ascendency,  are  called  the  Dark  Ages;  the  last  four 
hundred,  when  the  tendencies  to  order  and  civilization  had 
gained  strength,  are  called  the  Middle  Ages. 

285.  Even  in  the  Dark  Ages  some  powerful  civilizing 
agencies  were  at  work.  Most  of  the  barbarians  in  south- 
ern Europe  were  Christians,  and  held  the  clergy  in  great 
respect.  They  also  admired  the  Roman  skill  in  govern- 
ment, and  gladly  availed  themselves  of  the  services  of 
Roman   officials.      So   it   came   to   pass   that  most  of  the 


1 68  INTR  OD  UCTION. 


cities  in  Gaul,  Spain,  and  Italy  kept  their  Greek  or  Roman 
charters,  with  their  bishops  for  chief  magistrates;  and  that 
life  in  these  cities  was,  for  a  time,  as  orderly  and  secure 
as  it  had  been  in  the  days  of  the  Empire. 

Learning  had  almost  wholly  disappeared  from  among 
the  laity;  the  clergy  alone  could  read  and  write,  and  pos- 
sessed the  universal  Latin  language  which  was  used  in 
dealings  between  the  several  nations.  They  framed  laws, 
negotiated  treaties,  kept  the  records  of  public  events,  and 
executed  missions  to  foreign  kings.  The  education  of 
young  chiefs  was  entrusted  to  them;  and  their  influence 
did  not  cease  when  their  pupils  had  grown  to  manhood. 
Thus  the  power  of  the  Church  rose  rapidly  upon  the 
ruins  of  imperial  Rome.  It  was,  indeed,  the  only  power 
which  could  hold  in  check  the  proud  and  passionate  con- 
querors; and  the  "Dark  Ages"  would  have  been  darker 
still,  but  for  the  lights  of  reason  and  piety  which  the 
churches  kept  alive.  Many  men  of  superior  talents  with- 
drew from  the  turmoil  of  public  life  into  monasteries, 
where  they  gave  themselves  to  study  and  devotion.  All 
that  was  left  of  the  treasures  of  ancient  learning  was 
gathered  within  these  convent  walls,  and  the  industry  of 
the  monks  multiplied  copies  of  the  old  manuscripts,  which 
afford  our  only  means  of  knowing  the  thoughts  of  the 
Greek  and  Roman  writers. 


PART   I.  — The   Dark   Ages. 


A  Prankish  Warrior. 

most    of    the 
Baltic. 


CHAPTER  I. 

SETTLEMENTS    OF  THE    NORTHERN    TRIBES. 

T  the  end  of  the  fifth  century 
from  the  birth  of  Christ,  the 
western  European  nations  may 
already  be  traced  in  their  rude 
beginnings.  The  heathen 
Angles  and  Saxons  were  crowd- 
ing the  Celtic  Britons  into  the 
mountain-region  of  Wales,  and 
giving  its  i)resent  name  to  Eng- 
land. They  learned  Christian 
doctrines  a  hundred  years  later 
from  Roman  missionaries,  and 
taught  them  to  their  heathen 
brethren  on  the  continent.  The 
continental  Saxons  occupied 
land    between    the    lower    Rhine    and    the 


287.  The  Alemanni  possessed  southern  Germany  and  part 
of  Switzerland,  while  the  Burgiindians  had  the  valley  of 
the  Rhone  and  the  Swiss  lakes.  The  Franks  held  the 
country  between  the  Loire  and  the  Rhine.  Chlodwig^  or 
Clo'vis,  their  chief,  gained  many  victories  over  the  Ale- 
manni, the  Burgundians,  and  the  Visigoths,  and  made 
himself  king  of  nearly  all  France.  His  wife,  Clotil'da, 
was   a   Christian;    and    Cluvis,    though    a   pagan,    was    so 

(169) 


I70  MEDIMVAL   HISTORY, 

impressed  by  her  faith  that  he  called  upon  ' '  Clotilda's 
God,"  at  the  turning  point  of  a  battle.  He  gained  the 
victory,  A.  D.  496,  and,  with  thousands  of  his  warriors, 
was  immediately  baptized.  The  Eastern  emperor  sent  him 
the  purple  robe  and  diadem  of  a  consul,  making  him 
a  lieutenant  of  the  Empire.  The  descendants  of  Clovis, 
though  often  divided  by  fierce  contentions,  ruled  the 
countries  which  are  now  Belgium,  Western  Germany, 
and  a  great  part  of  France,  for  more  than  two  hundred 
years. 

288.  One  powerful  Gothic  kingdom  occupied  Spain 
(§279)  and  south-western  Gaul;  another,  under  Theod'- 
oricj-king  of  the  Ostrogoths,  embraced  Italy  and  the  lands 
between  the  Adriatic  and  the  Danube.  This  great  chief 
had  been  a  hostage  at  Constantinople  during  his  youth; 
and  the  education  which  he  there  received  added  the 
quick  intelligence  of  the  Greek  to  the  rude  energy  of 
the  Goth.  He  learned,  also,  a  profound  respect  for  the 
imperial  system  of  laws,   and  his  firm   rule  of  thirty-three 

years  was  a  happy  time  for  Italy.  Two 
■  "^^^  ^^  '  consuls,  one  chosen  by  himself  and  one  by 
the  emperor  of  the  East,  kept  up  the  ancient  forms  of 
government.  All  religions  were  protected,  and,  though 
the  Goths  held  one-third  of  the  lands  and  formed  a  kind 
of  military  aristocracy,  they  paid  an  equal  share  of  the 
taxes,  and  respected  all  the  rights  of  their  Italian  neigh- 
bors. Theodoric  was  the  greatest  German  monarch  of  his 
time;  the  chiefs  of  the  other  nations  referred  their  differ- 
ences to  him  and  regarded  him  as  their  head. 

289.  In  the  confusion  that  followed  Theodoric's  death,  the 
Eastern  emperor  interfered,  and,  in  spite  of  a  long  and 
brave  resistance  from  the  Goths,  ^  made  Italy  a  subject- 
province.  But  a  new  German  race,  the  Lombards,  or 
Long-Beards,  soon  appeared  and  overran  the  whole  penin- 
sula,   which    was    afterwards    divided    among    their    thirty 


THE  LOMBARDS.  171 


dukes.  Rome,  Ravenna,  Naples,  and  some  other  cities 
still  remained  subject  to  the  Empin.  while  the  Lombards 
ruled  the  rest  with  Pavia  for  their  capital.  The  great 
northern  plain  of  Italy  still  bears  their  name.  The  Lom- 
bards were  a  fierce  and  cruel  race,  never  mingling  in  a 
friendly  manner  with  the  Italians,  as  the  Goths  had  done. 
Still,  they  became  educated,  in  the  course  of  years,  by 
contact  with  wiser  and  better  people  than  themselves;  so 
that  the  system  of  laws  published  by  their  king,  Rotharis, 
in  643  A.  D.,  was  the  best  of  all  the  barbarian  codes.* 
It  was  founded  upon  the  ancient  customs  of  the  German 
tribes,  but  it  borrowed  some  of  its  best  features  from  the 
Roman  laws,  and  especially  from  the  Bible. 

290.  All  the  tribes  hitherto  described  were  Germans :  west 
of  them  was  a  narrow  border  of  Celts  in  Scotland,  Ireland, 
Wales,  and  north-western  France;  while  eastward  were  the 
Slavonians,  far  more  numerous,  though  less  warlike,  than 
the  Germans  —  fathers  of  the  modern  Poles,  Bohemians, 
Bulgarians,  Illyrians,  and  a  very  large  proportion  of  the 
Russians. 

Point  out,  on  Map  4,  the  settlements  of  the  German  tribes.  The 
Lombard  capital  of  Italy.  The  Italian  cities  which  belonged  to  the 
Eastern  Empire.     The  dominions  of  the  Slavonians  and  Celts. 

Read  Gibbon's  ♦* Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;"  Parke 
Godwin's  History  of  France;  and  Ilallam's  Middle  Ages. 

NOTES. 

1.  Chlodwig*  was  born  about  A.  D.  466.  and,  at  the  age  of  fifteen 
years,  succeeded  his  father,  ChUderic,  as  king  of  the  8ahan  Franks. 
Five  years  later  he  gained  a  victory  over  the  Ilomans  and  Gauls,  caj)- 
turing  from  them  the  town  of  Htjissons,  which  ho  made  his  capital. 
More  than  half  of  France  was  then  occupied  by  the  (ioths  and  Bur- 
guudians.  Alaric,  king  of  the  Visigoths,  ruled  from  the  I^ire  to  the 
Pyrenees;  but  he  was  defeated  and  slain  in  a  great  battle  near  Poitiers, 
A.  D.  507,  and  Ms  whole  dominion  was  added  to  the  kingdom  of  the 


•The  General  History  admits  the  common  French  names  of  the  Prankish  sovereigns, 
only  because  the  usage  'has  been  too  long  established  to  be  easily  changed :  and  many 
allusions  in  literature  would  fail  to  be  understood  if  the  German  names  had  been  used. 
In  strict  accuracy,  GLorit  should  be  Hlodwig  or  Chlodwig  (the  original  of  Ludwig  or  Lewis); 
OMdtmagyit  (§308)  is  Karl  the  Great ;  Albert  is  Albreehf;  and  Egbert  is  Ecgberht.  It  is  im- 
portant to  remember  that  the  descendants,  both  of  Hlodwig  and  of  Karl  were  Germans: 
they  spoke  the  Old  High  German  language,  which  is  the  parent  of  Modern  German,  and 
were  regarded  as  foreigners  by  the  Gauls  and  Romans  whom  they  conguered  and  ruled. 
The  modera  French  monarchy  dates  from  the  accession  of  Hugh  Capet  (§338)  A.  D.  967. 


172  MEDIAL VAL  HISTORY. 


Franks.  Clotilda  was  a  niece  of  the  king  of  Burgundy,  by  whom,  in 
her  helpless  orphanage,  she  had  been  cruelly  oppressed.  Clovis,  of 
course,  made  her  quarrel  his  own,  and  gained  decisive  victories  over  her 
kinsmen.  His  conversion  gained  for  him  the  powerful  support  of  the 
clergy;  but  it  does  not  seem  to  have  greatly  altered  the  fierceness  of  his 
nature.  He  destroyed  inany  princes  of  his  own  family  in  order  to  gain 
the  sovereignty  of  all  the  Franks,  which  he  succeeded  in  doing  toward 
the  end  of  his  life. 

The  dynasty  which  he  founded  is  called  Merovingian,  from  Merowig, 
his  grandfather. 

2.  Theodoric  the  Great,  a  son  of  King  Theodemir,  was  born  A.  D. 
455.  The  East  Goths  were  then  settled  between  the  Danube  and  the 
Adriatic;  and,  though  allies  of  the  Eastern  Empire,  were  usually  re- 
garded with  suspicion  and  required  to  give  hostages  for  their  friendly 
behavior.  This  was,  perhaps,  a  fortunate  state  of  things  for  Theodoric, 
for  it  procured  him  the  opportunity  to  study  the  highest  civilization  of 
his  age;  and  the  lessons  which  he  learned  at  Constantinople  were  of 
rich  benefit  to  his  Italian  subjects  in  later  years. 

At  the  age  of  twenty,  Theodoric  succeeded  his  father  as  king  of  the 
Ostrogoths;  and  soon  afterward  was  involved  in  war  with  Zeno,  Empe- 
ror ot  the  East,  who  had  usurped  the  throne  of  Theodoric's  late  host  and 
benefactor,  Leo  I.  The  Gothic  king  was  on  the  point  of  capturing  Con- 
stantinople, when  Zeno,  who  had  been  driven  from  the  city,  had  the 
art  to  engage  him  in  the  conquest  of  Italy.  Odoacer,  a  Gothic  or  Her- 
ulian  chieftain,  had  put  an  end  to  what  remained  of  the  Western  Ro- 
man Empire.  Theodoric  three  times  defeated  him  in  battle,  and  finally 
besieged  him  in  Ravenna,  wliich  surrendered  after  three  years,  and  the 
whole  peninsula  submitted  to  the  Gothic  king.  For  some  years  Theo- 
doric was  regent  for  his  grandson  Amalaric,  the  young  king  of  the 
West  Goths,  and  ruled  all  the  country  from  Sicily  to  the  Danube,  and 
from  Belgrade  to  the  Atlantic.  But  as  soon  as  Amalaric  was  of  age,  he 
was  lifted  upon  the  shields  of  the  Visigothic  chiefs,  according  to  the 
custom  of  all  German  tribes,  and  was  thus  invested  with  royal  power 
A.  D.  522.  Subsequently,  his  grandfather  aided  him  in  wars  against  the 
sons  of  Clovis,  with  varying  success. 

So  large  a  mind  as  that  of  Theodoric  could  not  fail  to  be  in  advance 
of  an  age  in  which  civilization  and  barbarism  were  curiously  mixed. 
In  the  latter  part  of  his  reign,  a  fierce,  fanatical  rage  against  the  Jews 
broke  out  into  a  riot,  in  which  houses,  shops,  and  synagogues  in  sev- 
eral cities  were  burnt.  Theodoric,  with  impartial  justice,  required  the 
mobs  to  make  good  the  property  they  had  destroyed.  But  their  rage 
was  then  turned  against  the  king.  Disheartened  by  his  failure  to  main- 
tain order,  or,  perhaps,  depressed  by  failing  health,  he  became  a  prey 
to  unjust  suspicions. 

Boethius,  a  distinguished  statesman  and  philosopher,  the  brightest 
ornament  of  the  court,  was  accused  by  his  envious  rivals  of  having  con- 
spired with  the  Emperor  of  the  East  to  drive  the  Goths  out  of  Italy. 
He  was  thrown  into  prison,  where  he  wrote  in  prose  and  verse,  his  ad- 
mirable treatise  on  the  "Consolation  of  Philosophy,"  a  work  which 
Alfred  the  Great  so  valued  that  he  translated  it  into  the  Saxon  English 
of  his  time  {§  329). 

The  execution  of  Boethius  by  the  king's  order  was  soon  followed  by 
that  of  his  father-in-law,  the  venerable  Symmachus;  but  grief  and  re- 
morse for  these  two  acts  hastened  the  death  of  Theodoric,  who  died 
within  a  year,  A.  D.  526. 

The  good  effects  of  Theodoric's  reign  were  not  all  lost,  even  when, 
after  sixty  years'  duration,  his  kingdom  was  overthrown,  A.  D.  553. 

Cassiodorus,  his  learned  secretary  and  chief  minister,  had  founded,  at 
Ravenna,  the  first  of  modern  public  libraries.  After  tliirty  years  of  high 
office  under  Theodoric  and  his  successor,  Cassiodorus  retired  at  the  age 
of  seventy,  to  a  monastery,  which  he  established  at  Squillace;  and, 
during  his  thirty  remaining  years— for  he  lived  nearly  a  century— he 
gave  an  impulse  to  monastic  learning  which  lasted  through  tlie  Middle 
Ages.  He  spent  large  sums  of  money  for  manuscripts  which  he  en- 
couraged the  monks  to  copy;  and  thus  set  a  fashion  which  Insured  the 
safe  preservation  of  many  treasures  of  ancient  literature  through  ages  of 
war  and  tumult.  But  for  the  convent-libraries,  modern  learning  would 
have  been  a  new  creation— robbed  of  all  its  rich  inheritance  from  the  past. 


NOTES,  173 


S.  Rome  wiw*  surrendered  witiiout  a  blow  by  \X»  sennto  and  clergy, 
A.  D.  rvitJ;  but  VltlRos,  the  third  successor  of  Tbeodorlc,  mustered  a  pow- 
erful army  and  hisitmMl  lU'llsiuius  inorc>  tliaii  n  yoar  in  the  Kicrnul 
City.  Tlu>  s(»|)ul«lur  <>l  llmlrlaii,  now  the  castle  of  St.  AukcIo,  wa.s  tluMi 
first  useti  as  a  fortrvss.  and  tlu'  boautifnl  (iroek  statues  whicli  adorned 
It  were  luirled  «lo\vn  uiM»n  the  beads  of  tlx'  bt'slenrrs. 

In  u  Kindle  assault  the  (ioths  lost  ;tt»,(iO()  men;  and,  at  ItMiKtb,  Vltlgen 
was  conimlletl  to  draw  oil'  his  n-dueed  army  to  Kav(>nna,  leaving  all 
ItiUy  to  IJellsarlus.  Ten  tbousimd  lUiruundians,  who  bad  eonie  to  the 
aid  of  the  (Jotbs,  destroyed  the  splendid  city  of  Milan;  and  the  next 
year,  Theo<lel>ert,  their  Prankish  sovereign,  passed  thr  Alps  with  100,(KX) 
men,  disguising  his  intentions  until  he  fell,  almost  at  the  same  moment, 
uixjn  both  the  (iothtc  and  the  Koman  army  near  Pa  via,  and  gained  a 
complete  vietory.  A.  D.  &«».  This  was  a  double  treachery;  for  he  had 
accepte<l  great  gifts  both  from  the  emperor  and  the  (iothie  king,  as  the 

Sriee  of  bis  alliance.  Theodebert  then  ravaged  Italy  until  famine  and 
isease  luul  retluced  his  army  to  one  third  of  its  original  numbers,  and 
he  withdrew  beyond  the  Alps.  Ilavenna,  whi(h,  secure  within  its 
marshes,  could  not  be  reducecl  by  the  Roman  forces,  at  length  yielded 
to  famine.  The  (ioths,  weary  of  the  unfortunate  reign  of  Vltigos,  begged 
IJellsarius  liimself  to  l>ecome  their  king.  He  pretended  to  accept  their 
offer,  but,  lus  soon  as  the  keys  of  tlie  fortress  were  in  his  hands,  be  de- 
clareil  that  he  held  them  only  as  the  faithful  subject  and  lieutenant  of 
Justinian. 

Pa  via  alone,  with  its  garrison  of  1,000  Goths,  still  held  out;  but,  as  soon 
as  Belisarius  liad  been  recalled  to  Constantinople,  the  new  king,  Totila, 
commenced  his  rapid  and  triumphant  march  for  the  recovery  of  Italy. 
Rome  was  retaken,  A.  D.  54();  its  senatore  were  carried  away  to  Cam- 
panian  prisons,  and  its  people  were  scattered  in  exile.  Belisarius,  re- 
turning, soon  regained  tlie  city  and  defeated  (he  Goths  in  a  decisive 
battle.  But  the  great  general  was  fettered  by  the  ungenerous  suspicions 
of  bis  master  (notes  1,  2.  Cb.  II).  Totila,  A.  D.  549,  aijain  took  Rome, 
following  up  his  success  by  the  conquest  of  Sicily,  Sardinia,  and  Corsica, 
and  the  Invasion  of  Greece.  An  embassy,  undertaken  by  the  Pope  him- 
self, now  Induced  Justinian  to  send  a  sufficient  force,  under  Narses,  for 
the  recovery  of  Italy.  In  a  great  battle  near  Tagina,  Totila  was  slain, 
and  Rome,  for  the  fifth  time  in  one  reign,  changed  masters,  A.  I).  r>)2. 

All  Italy  was  ruled  for  a  time  by  the  lieutenants  of  the  empire,  who 
bore  the  title  of  Exarchs  of  Ravenna,  Narses,  the  first  and  greatest  of 
the  exarchs,  reigned  A.  D.  554-568.— Jl/anuaf  of  Medkeval  and  Moileni  Ilis- 
toi-y,  pp.  22,  ±\  I  -m. 

4.  Within  about  a  century,  all  the  German  tribes  systematized  their 
ancient  customs  or  usages  into  written  codes  of  law.  Thus  Tbeodorlc, 
the  eldest  son  of  Clovis,  reigning  at  Metz  over  the  north-eastern  portion 
of  his  father's  dominion,  caused  throe  codes  to  be  prepared  for  his  Ale- 
mannic,  Bjivarlan,  and  Ripuarian  subjects,  respectively.  Six  codes  were 
in  force  under  the  Lombard  kings,  after  then*  conquest  of  Italy,— the 
Roman,  Gothic,  Salian,  Ripuarian,  Alemannic,  and  the  Lombard  of 
King  Rotharis.  Any  man,  when  summoned  into  court,  might  declare 
by  which  code  he  livetl  and  desired  to  be  judged;  but,  unless  he  could 
prove  himself  a  member  of  a  Teutonic  tribe,  the  Roman  law  prevailed. 
All  the  codes,  though  embodying  immemorial  customs,  were  formed 
under  more  or  less  influence  from  the  clergy,  and  were  modified  by 
the  principles  of  the  Scriptures. 

After  the  Lombard  conquest,  the  exarchate  of  Ravenna  comprised 
only  what  were  lately  the  States  of  the  Church,  together  with  Venice, 
Naples,  and  the  Calabrian  coast. 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE    ROMAN    EMPIRE    IN   THE    EAST. 

HOUGH  the  emperor  at  Constan- 
tinople still  called  himself  lord  of 
all  the  countries  which  Augustus 
or  Trajan  had  ruled,  and  though  the 
German  chiefs  acknowledged  him  their 
superior  (§  281),  his  actual  dominion 
was  but  little  more  extensive  than  that 
of  the  modern  Turks. 


A.  D.  527-565. 


Byzantine  Priest. 


292.  During  the  sixth  century  the  great- 
est emperor  was  Justin'ian/ 
the  grandson  of  a  Gothic 
farmer.  He  had  fierce  and  costly  wars 
with  Persia,  and  obtained  peace  at  last 
only  by  paying  tribute  to  the  Sassanidae  (§  259).  His 
military  glory  is  all  due  to  his  great  generals,  Belisa'rius^ 
and  Nar'ses.  The  former  conquered  northern  Africa, 
Sardinia,  and  Corsica  from  the  Vandals  (§279);  Sicily 
and  all  Italy  from  the  Goths  (§  288).  Theodoric's  king- 
dom fell,  sixty  years  from  its  foundation.  Italy,  Africa, 
and  the  islands  were  then  governed  by  exarchs^  or  lieuten- 
ants of  the  Empire,  one  having  his  seat  at  Carthage  and 
one  at  Ravenna.  Narses,  who  had  an  important  part  in 
the  conquest  of  the  Goths,  was  exarch  of  Ravenna  four- 
teen years. 

293.    Justinian  is  noted  for  the  splendid  buildings  with 
which   he  adorned   his  capital,   among  which    the  Church 
of  Santa  Sophia  was  said   to  surpass  the  Temple  of  Solo- 
mon.    But  his  best  title  to  fame  is  in  the  legislative  work 
(174) 


LAIVS  OF JUSTINIAS,  175 

which  afTorded  a  model  of  civil  law  for  all  the  nations  of 
Europe.  The  ablest  jurists,  under  his  direction,  compared 
the  decisions  of  all  the  best  judges  since  the  preparation  of 
the  Twelve  Tables  (§  194).  These,  when  edited,  formed 
the  Pamiccts.  The  Code  was  an  abridgment  of  the  acts  of 
all  the  emperors  since  Hadrian.  The  Institutes  set  forth 
the  elementary  principles  of  law,  and  afforded  a  text-book 
to  the  great  law-schools  of  Rome,  Athens,  Beirfit,  and 
Constantinople. 

294.  By  the  wars  of  Herac'lius,^  one  of  the  greatest  of 
Justinian's  successors  (A.  D.  610-641),  the  Persian  Empire 
was  overthrown,  but  the  same  emperor  saw  the  rise  of  a 
new  and  greater  power  in  the  East,  which  will  be  described 
in  the  next  chapter.  Leo  III.^  is  called  the  second  founder 
of  the  Eastern  Empire.  His  brilliant  defense  of  the  cap- 
ital against  the  Saracens,  saved  it  from  destruction,  while 
his  firm  and  wise  government  gave  it  a  new  era  of  security. 
His  subjects  were  the  most  prosperous  people     . 

of  that  age.  The  commerce  of  Europe  with  '  "  ^'^"^'** 
Asia  had  its  center  at  Constantinople,  and  the  cities  of 
central  and  eastern  Asia  were  then  far  more  flourishing 
than  now.  Leo's  attempt  to  put  down  the  worship  of 
images  led  to  a  violent  contest,  both  in  the  East  and  in 
Italy,  and  was  a  chief  cause  of  the  separation  between  the 
Greek  and  Roman  churches. 

295.  The  Macedonian  Dynasty,  of  which  Basil  L  was 
the  founder,*  governed  the  Empire  nearly  200  years,  and, 
in  867  A.  D.,  raised  it  to  its  highest  military  fame  by 
wars  with  the  Saracens,  Russians,  and  Bulgarians.  Basil 
n.   was   the  greatest  of  the  imperial  generals.® 

Trace,  on  Map  5,  the  conquests  of  Belisarius.  Point  out  the 
capitals  of  the  two  Exarchates  (§  292).     Justinian's  capital. 

Read  Gibbon,  and  Finlay's  "History  of  the  Byzantine  Empire." 

Also,  Rawlinson's  "Seventh  Ancient  Eastern  Monarchy." 


176  MEDIAEVAL  HISTORY. 


NOTES. 

1.  Justinian  was  born  A.  D.  483,  in  Dardania.  At  the  age  of  35,  he 
was  associated  with  his  uncle,  Justin  I.,  in  tlie  imperial  dignity,  and 
nine  years  later  became  sole  emperor.  The  rivalries  of  the  circus  in 
Constantinople,  between  the  "  Blue  "  and  the  "  Green  "  faction  led  to  open 
riot  and  rebellion,  in  which  30,000  lives  were  destroyed,  but  tlie  prompt- 
ness of  Belisarius,  general  of  the  Imperial  Guard,  quelled  the  insurrec- 
tion, and  the  clemency  of  Justinian  soothed  the  discontents  and  en- 
mities out  of  which  it  had  arisen.  The  Church  of  Santa  Sophia  (Holy 
Wisdom)  was  among  the  buildings  destroyed  in  the  conflagration;  and 
Justinian  caused  it  to  be  rebuilt  on  a  far  more  magnificent  scale  from  the 
plans  of  the  architect  Anthemius.  It  is  now  said  to  be  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  buildings  of  any  age  or  country;  and  Justinian  considered 
himself,  by  reason  of  it,  as  a  rival  of  Solomon.  Upon  the  Turkish  con- 
quest of  Constantinople  (^379)  this  great  church  was  converted  into  a 
mosque. 

Other  temples,  as  well  as  convents,  roads,  bridges,  aqueducts,  and  for- 
tifications in  various  parts  of  the  empire  attested  the  architectural  zeal 
and  liberality  of  Justinian. 

The  laws  of  Rome  had  never  been  reduced  to  a  system  since  the  time 
of  the  Decemviri  and  the  Twelve  Tables  (^  194),  for  Julius  Csesar  had  not 
been  allowed  time  to  fulfill  his  purpose  (g  237).  Every  thing  depended 
upon  precedents,  and  these  could  be  learned  only  from  a  mass  of  sepa- 
rate decisions  "which  no  fortune  could  buy,  and  no  intelligence  could 
comprehend."  The  need  and  importance  of  Justinian's  work  is  ttiere- 
fore  evident.  At  the  head  of  the  commission  of  ten,  who  prepax-ed  the 
first  code,  was  Tribonian,  a  celebrated  jurist  and  a  great  tavorite  with 
the  emperor. 

Justinian  was  a  liberal  patron  of  many  industrial  arts,  and  it  was 
during  his  reign  that  the  eggs  of  silkworms  were  first  brought  from 
Cliina  to  the  West.  The  culture  of  mulberry  plants  and  the  manufact- 
ure of  silk  were  encouraged  by  the  emperor,  and  became  a  very  im- 
portant industry  in  Greece  and  the  Mediterranean  islands. 

2.  Belisarius  was  an  officer  of  Justinian's  guard  before  the  latter  be- 
came emperor  in  527,  and  he  was  soon  afterward  promoted  to  be  gen- 
eral-in-chief  in  the  army  of  the  East.  In  this  capacity  he  defeated  the 
Persians  at  Dora,  in  530,  and  put  down  a  dangerous  riot  in  the  capital, 
532.  His  greatest  victories  were  over  the  Vandals  and  the  Goths,  as 
mentioned  in  the  text;  but  his  most  powerful  enemy  was  the  Empress 
Theodora,  who  poisoned  the  mind  of  Justinian  against  him,  deprived 
him  of  the  men  and  war  materials  that  he  had  a  right  to  expect  for  his 
enterprises  in  Italy,  and  thus  detracted  from  his  success,  and  more  than 
once  deprived  him  of  his  command.  On  a  false  accusation  of  conspir- 
acy against  Justinian,  he  was  imprisoned  and  robbed  of  all  his  posses- 
sions. There  is  a  story  that  blindness  was  added  to  his  misfortunes  of 
poverty  and  old  age;  and  that  he  was  seen  begging  in  the  streets  of 
Constantinople:  "Give  a  penny  to  Belisarius  the  general."  But  this  is 
more  picturesque  than  true.  We  may  be  certain,  however,  that  no 
great  man  ever  suffered  more  from  the  malice  and  jealousy  of  those  who 
ought  to  have  been  his  friends;  and  we  may  reasonably  conjecture  that  if 

^Belisarius,  like  Caesar  and  Napoleon,  had  possessed  means  commensur- 
*ate  with  his  talents,  he  would  have  ranked  with  them  among  the  great- 
est generals  of  all  ages. 

3.  Heraclius  was  born  about  A.  D.  575,  in  Cappadocia,  the  son  of  a 
Roman  governor  of  Africa,  of  the  same  name.  He  had  gained  distinc- 
tion in  the  army  before  the  violent  death  of  Phocas,  an  odious  tyrant, 
opened  for  him  the  way  to  the  imperial  throne.  His  empire  was  al- 
ready in  the  grasp  of  Chosroes  II.,  king  of  Persia,  one  of  whose  armies 
had  conquered  Syria,  Egypt,  and  northern  Africa  as  far  as  Tripoli,  while 
another  had  advanced  to  the  Bosphorus  and  held  its  camp  for  ten 
years  in  sight  of  Constantinople.  The  genius  and  courage  of  Heraclius 
shone  brightest  in  these  years  of  adversity.  He  conveyed  his  army  by 
sea  to  the  borders  of  Syria  and  Cilicia,  and,  on  the  very  spot  where  Al- 
exander, neai'ly  a  thousand  years  before,  in  the  battle  of  Issus  (g  160)  had 
overthrown  the  ancestor  of  Chosroes,  inflicted  a  decisive  defeat  upon 


NOTES,  177 


iho  Persian  hosts.  In  aseooml  tixpedltlon  he  carried  the  war  Into  Ter- 
8ln,  and  forced  (Miosro^  to  recall  his  forces  fTom  the  Nile  and  the  Bos- 
phorus;  In  ii  thlnl,  ho  >falncd  a  hnttlo  on  the  ground  that  covered  tlio 
ruins  of  Nlnovch,  utterly  destroying  the  armies  «)f  Tersla.  The  power 
of  the  seeotul  rerslan  enipire  expired  wltli  t'ljosroes,  and  its  existence 
was  s<M»n  cntlcil  by  the  Moliatnniedans. 

Hut  these  extmonilnary  ellorts  had  exhauste<l  the  forces  of  the  cm- 

f»lre,  and  the  Saracens  soon  gained  all  that  Heracllushad  wrcstc<l  from 
he  lVi"slans.  The  emperor,  jus  if  content  with  his  early  achievements, 
gave  himself  up  to  excessive  luxury,  wlille  province  after  province  was 
selzoil  by  the  enemy;  and  his  empire  covertnl  only  C'onstantlnoplc  and 
its  suburbs.  The  glory  of  his  youth  was  lost  In  the  disgrace  of  his  «ild 
age.  Hallam  well  says:  "Tluit  prince  nniy  be  said  to  have;  stood  on  the 
verge  of  both  hemispheres  of  time  whose  youth  was  crownetl  with  the 
last  victories  over  tlie  successors  of  Artjixerxes.  and  whose  jvge  was 
clouded  by  the  first  calamities  of  Mohammedan  invasion." 


4.  Leo  III.,  the  son  of  an  Isaurlan  farmer,  rose,  by  his  military  tal- 
ents, to  the  highest  command  In  the  armies  of  AnastiislusII.  When 
Theo<loslus  III.,  In  71(5,  deposed  Anastasius  and  commanded  the  army 
to  acknowledge  him  as  emperor,  Leo  instantly  marched  against  him 
and  defeated  him.  Instead,  however,  of  reinstating  his  former  sover- 
eign, he  made  himself  master  of  the  empire.  Scarcely  was  he  seated 
on  tlie  throne,  when  the  Saracen  forces  advanced  to  their  third  siege  of 
Constantinople  (see  g  2?»9).  This  lasted  Just  two  years,  Aug.  15,  7ls,  to 
Aug.  l.'>,  72<t,  ajid  was  pressed  with  all  the  energy  and  fury  of  the  earliest 
Saracen  pericxl.  But  I^eo,  Issuing  with  his  galleys  from  the  Golden  Horn, 
three  times  consumed  the  Moslem  tleets  with  storms  of  Greek  flre,  and 
returnetl  laden  with  plunder  and  with  multitudes  of  captives.  At  length 
he  gainetl  a  complete  victorv  by  land,  and  the  caliph  retreate<l  after  a 
loss  of  28,000  men. 

While  the  emperor  was  so  long  shut  up  in  his  capital,  the  besiegers 
took  go<Kl  care  that  no  news  of  their  defeat  should  reach  the  provinces; 
and  it  was  even  believed  in  the  West  tha|  the  empire  had  been  over- 
thrown. But  IjCo's  energy  and  promptness  soon  regained  Sicily  and  the 
portion  of  ludy  that  still  obeyed  the  eastern  C£esars.  Leo's  edict  agaitist 
images,  was  a  political,  quite  as  much  as  a  religious  mesisure,  for  he 
hoped  to  soothe  the  enmity  of  Jews  and  Mohammedans,  which  had 
been  excitetl  by  the  novel  practices  in  the  churches.  We  have  seen 
that  he  faile<l;  indeed,  his  edict  wtus  the  signal  for  a  general  revolution, 
in  which  Ravenna,  Rome,  and  the  other  Greek  possessions  in  Italy  were 
lost  to  the  empire. 

5.  Basil  I.  was  said  to  be  descended,  on  the  father's  side,  from  the 
Arsacidee,  rulers  of  the  Parthian  Empire:  on  the  mother's,  from  Con- 
stantine  the  Great,  and,  perhaps,  from  Philip  and  Alexander  of  Mace- 
don.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  the  name  of  "Macedonian,"  borne 
by  his  dynasty,  was  derived  only  from  the  great  estates  which  he  had 

Eurchased  in  Macedon.  As  a  boy,  he  was  made  a  prisoner  and  slave 
y  the  Bulgarians;  but,  after  many  surprising  turns  of  fortune,  arriving 
at  Constantinople,  he  rose  into  favor  at  court,  and  at  last  attained  the 
imperial  crown  itself.  His  reign  was  signalized  by  the  Christian izat ion 
of  Bulgaria,  an  event  of  lasting  importance.  Though  no  general  him- 
self, Basil  had  the  talent  to  discern  and  employ  military  talent  in  others; 
and  his  armies  gained  great  victories  over  the  Saracens,  whom  they  ex- 
pelled from  the  Italian  peninsula,  though  not  from  Sicily.  Basil  I. 
reigne<l  A.  D.  8r.7-«86. 

6.  Basil  II.  was  born  in  the  imperial  palace  at  Constantinople  A.  D. 
ft58,  and  came  to  the  throne  A.  D.  y7f),  in  partnership  with  his  younger 
brother,  Constantine.  Constantine,  however,  was  idle  and  luxurious, 
while  Ba.sil  bore  all  the  burdens  of  a  reign  trouble<l  by  many  wars,  both 
civil  and  foreign.  His  sister  Theophanla  was  the  wife  of  Otho  II.,  Em- 
peror of  the  West  (g;i22),  but  Basil  had  need  to  tight  against  his  brother- 
in-law  no  less  than  against  the  Arabs  and  Bulgarians.  The  powerful 
kingdom  of  the  latter  was  overthrown  by  a  series  of  conflicts  extend- 
ing over  30  years. 

Hist.-12. 


Saracens. 


CHAPTER    III. 

THE    SARACENS. 

ROM  the  sandy  deserts  of  Arabia 
a  power  had  now  arisen,  which 
threatened  to  subdue  and  govern 
the  whole  extent  of  the  Roman 
dominion.  Moham'med,i  an  Ara- 
bian camel-driver,  in  his  journeys 
from  Mecca  to  Damascus,  met 
travelers  from  all  nations.  He 
had  the  wit  to  perceive  that  all 
the  old  religions  were  dead,  while 
the  Christian  church  was  weakened 
and  divided  by  the  war  against 
images;  and  he  conceived  the  bold 
idea  of  replacing  all  the  creeds  by 

the  worship   of  One   God,  of  whom  he  himself  was  to  be 

the  prophet. 

297.  His  own  tribe,  however,  were  so  angry  at  his  pre- 
tensions, that  they  vowed  to  kill  the  self-appointed  prophet. 

He  fled  to  Medina,  where  he  soon  had  a  pow- 
erful party ;  and  from  this  flight  ( Hegira)  his 
followers  still  date  their  history.  Within  seven  years,  all 
Arabia  submitted  to  be  not  only  taught,  but  governed  by 
Mohammed.  He  claimed  to  have  received  from  the  Arch- 
angel Gabriel  a  volume  containing  the  decrees  of  God. 
These  he  made  known  only  in  fragments  to  his  disciples, 
who  wrote  them  on  palm-leaves  or  on  bits  of  bone.  After 
his  death  they  were  collected  and  published  in  the  Koran. 

298.  He    now   commenced    a   wonderful    career  of  con- 
quest,   A.    D.    629.      All    who  would    not   believe    in    his 


A.  D.  622. 


SARACENS  IN  THE  WEST.  179 

mission  were  subjected  to  tribute  or  death.  The  bravery 
of  his  followers  was  sharpened  by  religious  zeal.  They 
were  told  that  the  moment  of  every  man's  death  is  written 
in  the  IJook  of  Fate.  At  that  moment  he  will  fall  dead, 
wherever  he  may  be;  until  it  comes,  he  is  safe  in  the 
fiercest  storm  of  battle. 

299.  In  less  than  a  hundred  years  the  successors  of  Mo- 
hammed had  conquered  Persia,  Syria,  Egypt,  northern 
Africa,  and  Spain.  Alexandria  was  twice  re-taken  by  the 
Greek  armies  and  fleets,  after  it  had  submitted  to  the 
Moslem  force,  but  it  was  twice  re-captured,  and  its  library, 
containing  inestimable  treasures  of  ancient  literature,  was 
destroyed.  Constantinople  was  more  fortunate.  Thrice 
besieged  by  the  Moslem,  once  for  seven  years  (A.  D.  668- 
675),  again  for  thirteen  months,  and  a  third  time  for' two 
years,  it  was  saved  by  Greek  Fire,  an  explosive  liquid, 
whose  composition — of  naphtha,  sulphur,  and  pitch — was 
then  known  only  to  the  Byzantines. 

300.  The  great  battle  that  gave  Spain  to  the  Saracens, 
was  fought  at  Xeres,  on  the  Guadalete,^  A.  D.  711.  It 
lasted  seven  days;  but  at  length  King  Rod'erick  was  put 
to  flight,  and  the  Mohammedans,  in  a  few  months,  over- 
ran the  whole  peninsula.  Prince  Pelay'o,  with  a  few  brave 
Goths,  retreated  to  the  mountains  of  Asturias,  and  kept 
alive  the  Christian  power,  which  grew,  in  time,  to  be  the 
kingdom  of  Spain.  Multitudes  of  Moslems,  from  Syria  and 
Arabia,  flocked  into  the  country.  Their  victorious  forces 
crossed  the  Pyrenees,  and  conquered  a  great  part  of  south- 
ern France.  They  meant  to  subdue  the  northern  shores 
of  the  Mediterranean  as  they  had  the  southern,  and  make 
the  Saracen  Empire  as  extensive  as  that  of  Augustus  or 
Trajan. 

301.  But  a  great  power  had  now  arisen  in  France.  The 
descendants  of  Clovis  (§  287)  had  lost  character  and 
energy,  so  that   for  a  hundred  years  they  had  no  better 


l8o  MEDIEVAL   HISTORY. 

name  in  history  than  that  of  do-nothings  and  idiots.  Their 
authority  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Mayors  of  the  Palace,  a 
succession  of  able  officers  who  ruled  both  kingdom  and 
king.  Charles  Martel,  one  of  the  greatest  of  these  mayors, 
mustered  all  the  German  tribes  to  meet  the  Moslem  hosts 
who  were  advancing  for  the  conquest  of  France. 

302.  The  decisive  battle  was   fought,    for  several    days, 

on  a  plain  between  Tours  and  Poitiers.  The 
Saracens  had  better  armor,  and  the  confidence 
derived  from  a  century  of  almost  uninterrupted  victories. 
The  Germans  had  greater  personal  strength,  and  they  were 
fighting  for  home  and  faith.  At  length  the  Arab  ranks 
were  broken,  their  general  was  slain,  and  they  stole  away 
in  the  night,  leaving  their  camp,  rich  with  the  plunder  of 
southern  Europe,  to  reward  the  Franks. 

303.  Within  a  few  years,  the  Saracen  Empire  was  divided 
among  three  families:  The  Ommi'ades,  who  had  hitherto 
ruled  the  whole,  lost  all  but  Spain;  the  descendants  of 
A'li,  son-in-law  and  one  of  the  first  converts  of  Mohammed, 
obtained  Persia,  Egypt,  and  Mauretania;  while  the  Abbas' sides^ 
descendants  of  the  Prophet's  uncle,  ruled  the  rest  of  the 
Saracen  dominion,  from  their  capital,  Bagdad,  on  the 
Tigris.  The  Abbasside  sovereign  was  called  the  caliph, 
or  successor  of  Mohammed;  and  was  the  religious  head 
of  Islam,  as  well  as  the  ruler  of  the  empire. 

304.  The  first  rude  era  of  conquest  was  succeeded  by 
a  brilliant  period  of  intellectual  progress.  The  Arabs  be- 
came the  teachers  of  Europe  in  botany,  chemistry,  and 
medicine.  From  Samarcand  to  Cordova,^  the  capital  of 
Spain,  their  great  cities  were  enriched  by  libraries  and 
colleges,  and  adorned  with  Moorish  architecture.     Ha'roun 

al    Rasch'id*  and    his    successor   Alma'mun,  ^ 

"  ^      ^^       invited    learned    men    from    all    nations    to 

their   magnificent   court  at   Bagdad,    and,    by   their  orders, 

the  writings  of  the  Greek  philosophers  were  translated  into 


SARA  CEN  PIRA  T£S.  1 8 1 

Arabic.  Western  Europe  was  now  sunk  in  comparative 
ignorance,  and  the  few  great  scholars  had  to  seek  instruc- 
tion at  the  schools  of  the  Saracens. 

305.  But  the  Saracens  were  not  all  learned  or  refined. 
Mohammedan  freebooters  conquered  Sicily  and  Crete,  and 
made  the  latter  their  slave-market,  where  captives  from 
all  the  Mediterranean  countries  were  bought  and  sold. 
All  the  Sicilian  ports  were  nests  of  pirates,  who  preyed 
upon  Italy,  and  even  twice  attacked  Rome.  The  gold 
and    silver    in    the    churches    were    carried 

1  ,  •  111  A.  D.  846,  847. 

away,  but  the  city  was  saved  by  the  energy 
of  its  Pope,  Leo  IV.  In  honor  of  him,  the  quarter  of 
Rome  where  the  popes  live,  has  ever  since  been  called 
the  Leonine  City.  Thessalonica,  the  second  city  of  the 
Eastern  Empire,  was  taken  by  the  Saracens;  and,  after 
most  of  its  people  had  been  massacred,  22,000  of  its 
youth  were  sold  into  slavery,  A.   D.  904. 

On  Maps  5  and  7,  point  out  Arabia,  Mecca,  Medina,  Xeres,  Tours. 
Trace  the  Saracen  conquests,  actual  and  intended.  Point  out  the 
three  Saracen  kingdoms.  Bagdad.  Samarcand.  Cordova.  Thessa- 
lonica. 

Read  Irving's  "Mahomet  and  his  Successors,"  Finlay's  "History 
of  the  Byzantine  Empire,"  Gibbon's  *'  Decline  and  Fall,"  and  South- 
ey's  •'  Roderick,"  with  the  notes. 

NOTES. 

1.  As  the  founder  of  one  of  the  most  widely  diflfused  religions  on  the 
globe— one  which,  by  its  vigor  and  fierce  fanaticism,  seems  able,  even 
now,  to  involve  all  Europe  In  war— Mohammed  must  always  aflord  an 
interesting  subject  for  study.  Until  lately,  he  has  been  most  commonly 
regarded  in  Christendom  as  not  only  the  teacher  of  a  false  system  of 
belief,  but  a  conscious  and  cunning  impostor.  But,  when  we  consider 
how  real  and  lasting  werti  the  results  of  his  actions,  we  can  hardly 
doubt  that  he,  at  least,  believed  in  himself.  "A  false  man  found  a  re- 
ligion !  "  says  Carlyle.  "  Why !  a  false  man  can  not  even  build  a  brick 
wall."  Through  his  long  career,  and  even  in  the  hour  of  death,  Mo- 
hammed never  betrayed  the  weakness  which  attends  intentional  de- 
ception. But  he  was  of  a  peculiarly  excitable,  nervous  constitution, 
subject  to  visions  and  other  illusions  of  a  powerful  imagination;  and 
his  visions  took  their  form  from  the  strong  conviction  of  his  waking 
hours  that  his  pagan  countrymen  needed  a  purer  faith.  At  first  he  was 
tolerant  of  those  who  dlflTered  from  him.  "If  you  meet  an  unbeliever, 
say  to  him,  You  have  your  religion,  I  have  mine,"  was  his  direction  to 


1 82  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY, 

his  followers.  But,  after  his  enforced  flight  to  Medina,  he  changed  his 
plans.  "The  sword,"  said  he,  "is  the  key  of  heaven  and  of  hell;  a  drop 
of  blood  shed  in  the  cause  of  God,  or  a  night  spent  in  arms,  is  of  more 
avail  than  two  months  of  fasting  and  prayer;  whoever  falls  in  battle, 
his  sins  are  forgiven  him;  and,  at  the  day  of  judgment,  the  loss  of  his 
limbs  shall  be  supplied  by  the  wings  of  cherubim."  The  only  choice 
oflered  to  unbelievers  was  "the  Koran,  tribute,  or  the  sword." 

Mohammed's  first  convert  was  his  generous  and  faithful  wife,  Kha- 
dijah ;  and  for  years  his  only  adherents  were  his  household  and  intimate 
friends.  His  uncle,  Abu  Talib,  though  refusing  to  regard  him  as  a  prophet, 
was  his  firm  friend  and  protector;  while  All,  the  son  of  Abu  Talib,  was 
his  cousin's  bravest  and  most  devoted  adherent.  For  his  courage  and 
lofty  spirit,  Ali  was  called  the  "  Lion  of  God."  He  married  Mohammed's 
only  daughter,  Fatima,  and  became,  in  later  years,  the  founder  of  the 
sect  of  Fatimites,  or  Shiites,  to  which  the  Persians  still  belong.  Among 
other  adherents,  was  Abu  Bekr,  the  first  successor  of  Mohammed,  and 
Omar,  the  prophet's  kinsman  and  second  successor,  the  conqueror  of 
Jerusalem,  and  builder  of  the  mosque  which  bears  his  name  upon  the 
site  of  Solomon's  Temple. 

Seven  years  from  the  Hegira,  Mecca  was  taken  by  storm,  and  Mo- 
hammed's late  bitter  enemies  received  him  as  their  prophet  and  king. 
"  What  mercy  can  you  expect,"  said  he,  "  from  the  man  whoin  you  have 
so  deenly  wronged?"  "we  trust  to  the  generosity  of  our  kinsman," 
was  the  reply.  "And  you  shall  not  trust  in  vain,"  rejoined  the  con- 
queror, "go;  you  are  safe;  you  are  free." 

After  four  years  more  of  almost  constant  victories,  Mohammed  was 
seized  with  a  violent  fever.  "  When  he  perceived  that  his  end  was  near, 
supported  by  the  arms  of  Ali  and  another  relative,  he  went  into  the 
mosque  and  asked  publicly  if  he  had  injured  any  one;— if  so,  he  was 
ready  to  make  full  amends,  or  to  suffer  himself  what  he  had  inflicted 
on  others.  As  no  one  answered,  he  Jisked  again  if  he  owed  any  man 
any  thing.  A  voice  replied,  "  Yes;  to  me,  three  drachms  of  silver."  The 
prophet  ordered  the  money  to  be  paid,  and  thanked  his  creditor  that 
he  made  his  complaint  now,  instead  of  deferring  it  till  the  day  of  judg- 
ment." He  died  on  his  63d  or  65th  birthday,  in  the  eleventh  year  of 
the  Hegira,A.  D.  (532. 

His  foUowei-s,  led  by  Omar,  refused  to  believe  that  he  was  dead,  but 
Abu  Bekr  quieted  the  tumult.  "Is  it  Mohammed,"  said  he,  "or  the 
God  of  Mohammed  that  you  worship?  God  liveth  for  ever  and  ever; 
but  Mohammed,  though  his  prophet  and  apostle,  was  mortal  like  our- 
selves, and,  in  dying,  has  but  fulfilled  his  own  prediction." 

Abu  Bekr  was  the  first  Caliph,i.  e.,  successor  of  Mohammed;  the  term 
is  now  applied  to  the  religious  head  of  Islam,  and  has  been  assumed 
in  late  years  by  the  Sultan  at  Constantinople. 

Mohammed  named  no  successor,  nor  did  he  even  direct  how  the 
choice  of  one  should  be  made.  Strife  soon  arose,  therefore,  between  his 
near  kinsmen,  led  at  first  by  Ali,  his  son-in-law,— and  the  family  of 
Ommeyah,  to  which  Othman,  the  third  caliph,  belonged.  After  the 
death  of  Khadijah,  the  prophet  had  married  Ayesha,  daughter  of  Abu 
Bekr.  When  Ali  had  gained  the  throne  by  the  murder  of  Othman, 
Ayesha  took  up  arms  against  him.  and  the  first  civil  war  in  Islam 
began  with  the  battle  of  Bosrah,  A.  D.  656.  Ali  was  victorious,  and 
reigned  four  years,  but  he  was  then  (A.  D.  660)  murdered  in  his  turn, 
and  Moawiyeh,  the  second  Oramiad  Caliph,  established  his  govern- 
ment at  Damascus,  where  he  and  his  fourteen  descendants  maintained 
the  supremacy  of  their  house  for  89  years.  The  last  of  them  was  de- 
throned bj''  a  descendant  of  Abbas,  an  uncle  of  Mohammed,  who  gained 
a  great  battle  near  Arbela  (§  162)  on  the  river  Zab,  and  founded  the  dy- 
nasty of  the  Abbassides. 

The  descendants  of  Ommeyah  were  now  hunted  to  death  with 
atrocious  barbarities.  Only  one  escaped— the  young  prince  Abderrah- 
man— who  wandered  from  one  hiding-place  to  another,  through  north- 
ern Africa  into  Spain,  where  he  reestablished,  at  Cordova,  the  brilliant 
dynasty  of  the  Ommiades. 

The  two  sons  of  Ali  and  Fatima  came  to  untimely  ends;  but  their 
descendants,  in  a  somewhat  irregular  manner,  kept  possession  of  Per- 
sia, Egypt,  and  northern  Africa.  They  were  despised  for  their  heretical 
doctrines  by  the  orthodox  Moslems  or  "Soonnites,"  and  to  this  day 
their  followers  are  known  as  SheCah,  iShiites,  or  Separatists. 


NOTES.  183 


2.  Tho  kingdom  of  tlio  VisigotliB  in  Hpuin  (^^271),  288)  wtifl  weakened 
during  lt«  latrr  yoars  by  \\w  (Munitios  of  two  rival  royal  familieo,  w) 
tljat  It  becaiui'  a  comparatively  easy  prey  to  tlu'  Invadi'rs,  Report 
Siiys  that  Count  Julian,  a  powerful  lord  among  the  VlKigothx,  and 
commandant  <»f  the  African  fortretw  of  Ceuta,  enraged  by  an  injury 
received  from  King  Iloderlck,  Invited  the  Saracens  Into  Bpaiu. 

•' Desnerate  apostate!  on  the  Moors  he  called; 
Anil,  like  a  cloud  of  locusts,  whom  the  iSoutli 
Wafts  from  the  plains  of  wasted  Africa, 
The  Mussulmen  upon  Ibt^rla's  shore 
Descend.    A  countless  multitude  they  came; 
Syrian,  Moor,  Saracen,  (ireek  renegatie, 
Persian  and  Copt  and  Tartar,  In  one  l)ond 
Of  erring  faith  conjoined,— strong  In  the  youth 
And  iieat  of  zeal,— a  dreadful  brotherhood 
In  whom  all  turbulent  vices  were  let  loose.    .    .    . 
Then  fell  the  kingdom  of  the  Goths;  their  liour 
Was  come,  and  \  engeance,  long  withheld,  went  loose. 
Famine  and  Pestilence  liad  wasted  them, 
And  Treason,  like  an  old  and  eating  sore. 
Consumed  the  bones  and  sinews  of  their  strength, 
And,  worst  of  enemies,  their  sins  were  armed 
Against  them.    Yet  the  scepter  from  their  hands 
Passed  not  away  Inglorious,  nor  was  shame 
Left  for  their  children's  lasting  heritage. 
Eight  summer  days,  from  morn  till  latest  eve. 
The  fatal  fight  endured,  till  perftdy 
I'revailing  to  their  overthrow,  they  sank 
Defeated,  not  dishonored.    On  the  banks 
Of  Chrysus,  RcKlerlck's  royal  car  was  found. 
His  battle  horse  Orello,  and  that  helm 
Whose  horns,  amid  the  thickest  of  the  fray 
Imminent,  had  marked  his  presence.    Did  the  stream 
Receive  him  with  the  undistinguished  dead, 
Christian  and  Moor,  who  clogged  its  course  that  day? 
So  thought  the  conqueror;  and  from  that  day  forth. 
Memorial  of  his  perfect  victory. 
He  bade  the  river  bear  the  name  of  Joy." 

—SoxUheyy  "Moderick,  the  Last  of  the  OotJis." 

Pelayo  was  a  cousin  of  Roderick,  and  ancestor  of  subsequent  kings 
of  Spain. 

3.  Cordova,  founded,  probably,  by  the  Carthaginians,  was  taken  by 
the  Romans,  B.  C.  152,  and  became  the  seat  of  the  first  Roman  colony 
In  Spain.  In  the  war  between  Caesar  and  the  sons  of  Pompey  (§235), 
Cordova  took  part  with  the  latter,  and  was  punished  after  Ceesar's 
victory  at  Munda.  by  the  mas.sacre  of  20,000  of  Its  people.  It  was  the 
home  of  Seneca  (§iV)),  and  of  many  other  distinguished  Romans.  Under 
the  Goths  It  was  still  an  Important  city,  and  Hosius,  its  bishop,  was 
president  of  the  Council  of  Nice  (§267).  After  the  Saracen  conquests, 
Cordova  became  the  capital  of  the  Moorish  dominion  in  Spain,  and  a 
seat  of  luxury  and  learning. 

4.  Haroun  al  Raschid  (Aaron  the  Just),  the  most  splendid  and  pow- 
erful of  the  Abbassldes,  reigned  from  A.  D.  788  to  809.  "About  mi  he 
waged  a  successful  war  against  tlie  Byzantine  emperor,  Nicephorus, 
whom  he  compelled  to  pay  tribute.  He  Is  chiefly  renowned  as  the 
principal  hero  of  the 'Arabian  Nights  Entertainment.'"  His  excessive 
cruelty  to  the  people  of  the  eastern  empire,  whose  lands  he  ravaged, 
and  his  murder  of  the  Barmecides,  his  own  intimate  friends  and  faith- 
ful servants,  make  us  doubt  whether  his  surname  of  the  Just  was  de- 
servedly bestowed. 

5.  Almamun,  son  of  the  preceding,  conquered  his  elder  brother,  and 
reigned  from  813  to  ms.  His  court  at  Bagdad  was  the  great  center  of 
learning  for  the  world:  and  his  reign  was  signalized  by  the  first  accu- 
rate measurement  of  the  earth's  orbit. 


CHAPTER   IV. 


THE    WESTERN    EMPIRE    RESTORED. 


Priest  and  Paladin. 


I ESIDES  preventing  a  Saracen  conquest 
of  Europe,  the  victory  of  Charles 
Martel,  at  Tours,  had  another  result 
almost  equally  important.  It  caused 
the  Frankish  chief  to  be  regarded  as 
the  champion  of  western  Chris- 
tendom, and  the  natural  ally  of 
the  Pope.  While  the  exarchate 
of  Africa  was  falling  into  the 
hands  of  the  Saracens,  that  of 
Ravenna  was  losing  most  of  its 
power  in  Italy.  During  the  war 
for  the  Images  (§294),  the  Ro- 
mans declared  themselves  a  re- 
public, with  the  Pope  at  their 
head,  and  destroyed  the  fleet  which  the  Emperor  of  the 
East  sent  to  compel  their  submission.  But  the  Lombards 
(§289)  were  now  masters  of  a  great  part  of  Italy,  and 
threatened  Rome.  Pope  Greg'ory  III.  sent  an  urgent 
appeal  for  help  to  the  great  mayor,  Charles  Martel,  who, 
by  conquering  Burgundy,  Provence,  and  Aquitaine,  had 
extended  his  power  over  all  modern  France. 

307.  Charles  died  too  soon  to  fulfill  the  wishes  of  Greg- 
ory; but  his  son  Pe'pin  twice  invaded  Italy  with  great 
armies,  and  conquered  22  cities  from  the  Lombard  king, 
who,  moreover,  had  to  resign  one  third  of  all  his  treasures 
to  the  Pope.  Pepin  was  already  crowned  King  of  the 
Franks;^  he  now  received  the  title  of  ''patrician^''  with 
(184) 


CHARLES   THE   GREAT.  185 


almost  the  power  of  the  ancient  consuls  at  Rome.  Money 
was  coined  and  justice  administered  in  his  name,  and  the 
election  of  the  popes,  by  the  clergy  of  their  diocese,  was 
subject  to  his  approval. 

308.  Pepin's  son  Charles  was  one  of  the  greatest  charac- 
ters in  history,  whether  considered  as  sovereign,  lawmaker, 
or  military  chief.  By  the  Pope's  invitation  he,  too,  crossed 
the  Alps  and  made  war  with  the  Lombards.  Pavia,  their 
capital,  was  taken  after  fifteen  months'  siege;  their  king 
and  his  family  were  imprisoned  for  the  rest  of  their  lives; 
and  Charles  received  the  iron  crown,  which  made  him 
King  of  Italy.  He  also  extended  his  protection  to  the 
Gothic  Christians  in  Spain,  and  added  the  land  between 
the  Pyrenees  and  the  Ebro  to  his  dominion. 

309.  In  pursuance  of  his  plan  for  civilizing  and  Chris- 
tianizing  all    Europe,   he   waged   war   for   33 

years  with  the  heathen  Saxons  and  Slavonians 
in  the  north  and  east.  At  this  time  there  was  not  a  city 
in  northern  Germany.  Many  towns  were  founded  by 
Charles,  as  centers  not  only  of  trade  but  of  intelligence 
and  Christianity.  Every  town  had  its  bishop,  and  every 
bishopric  and  monastery  maintained  a  college.  Libraries 
were  founded,  and  copies  of  the  great  writings  of  antiquity 
were  distributed  among  them.  The  old  ballads  which  told 
of  the  brave  deeds  of  German  heroes  were  now  first  col- 
lected by  Charles'  order. 

310.  Before  the  Saxons  were  thoroughly  reduced  to  sub- 
mission, the  Bavarians  revolted  against  the  Prankish  power, 
and  called  the  Avars  to  their  aid.  These  were  a  Tartar 
tribe,  of  the  same  race  with  Attila's  Huns  (§280),  and 
had  been  encamped  more  than  200  years  in  what  is 
now  known  as  Hungary.  Not  only  was  Bavaria  subdued, 
but,  after  a  long  and  fierce  contest,  the  Avars  also  sub- 
mitted to  Charles.  The  spoils  of  Europe  and  Asia,  which 
had   been    laid   up   for   centuries   in    their    fortified   camp, 


1 86  MEDIEVAL   HISTORY. 

went  to  enrich  their  conquerors.  The  long  eastern  frontier 
of  the  Frankish  dominion,  extending  from  the  Adriatic  to 
the  Baltic,  was  now  guarded  by  chiefs  who  were  thence 
known  as  margraves,  or  Counts  of  the  Border. 

311.  On  Christmas  day,  A.  D.  800,  as  Charles  was  pray- 
ing in  the  church  of  St.  Peter,  at  Rome,  the  Pope  placed 
upon  his  head  the  crown  of  the  Caesars,  saluting  him  as 
''Charles  Augustus,  crowned  of  God,  great  and  peace- 
giving  Emperor  of  the  Romans."  The  throne  of  Constan- 
tinople had  lately  been  usurped  by  Irene,  a  most  unnatural 
mother,  who  had  put  out  her  son's  eyes  to  unfit  him  for 
reigning,  and  had  then  thrust  herself  into  his  place.  It 
was  now  thought  that  Old  Rome  might  take  back  the 
importance  which  Constantine  had  given  to  the  New 
(§268),  and,  as  Constantine  VI.,  the  blinded  emperor, 
was  sixty-seventh  in  order  from  the  first  Augustus,  Charles 
was  numbered  sixty-eighth  as  his  successor. 

312.  Charles  the  Great  was  recognized  as  the  head  of 
Christendom,  not  only  by  Goths  and  Saxons  in  the  West, 
but  by  the  caliph  Haroun  al  Raschid  (§304),  who  sent 
him,  among  other  gifts,  the  keys  of  the  Holy  Sepulcher 
at  Jerusalem.  It  was,  in  fact,  the  great  aim  of  Charles' 
life  to  give  to  his  whole  dominion  that  security  and  peace 
which  the  Roman  world  had  enjoyed  under  the  best  of 
the  emperors.  Instead  of  the  armed  assemblies,  which 
had  transacted  the  affairs  of  the  German  tribes  at  the 
March-  and  May-fields,  diets  were  now  instituted,  in  which 
the  bishops  had  an  important  part;  and  the  discussions 
were  in  Latin,  so  that  members  from  all  nations  might 
understand. 

313.  Charles  delighted  in  the  conversation  of  learned 
men,  and  continued  his  own  studies  all  his  life,  with 
their  advice.  Wherever  he  might  be,  in  court  or  camp, 
in  the  ancient  cities,  or  in  the  wildernesses  of  northern 
Europe,  he  was   surrounded    by  his   learned    friends;    and 


THE   TREATY  OF   VERDUN.  187 


his  house  or  tent  was  a  school  for  younger  princes,  who 
sought  his  instruction  in  the  arts  of  war  and  government. 
With  the  majesty  of  the  Caisar,  he  combined  the  simple 
habits  of  the  Frankish  chief.      His  loni;  and 

-       .  °      ^  A.  D.  768-814. 

mcessantly  active  reign  of  46  years  went  far 
to  transform  the  Dark  Ages  into  order  and  enlightenment; 
but,  unhappily,  his  imperial  genius  did  not  descend  to  his 
sons,  and  the  succeeding  ages  were  darker  than  ever. 

314.  Louis  the  Mild,  or  the  Pious,  was  the  only  surviving 
son  of  Charlemagne,  and  was  already  crowned  as  emperor 
at  his  father's  death,  A.  D.  814.  He  shared  the  imperial 
dignity  with  his  eldest  son  Lothaire',  giving  kingdoms  to 
his  other  sons;  but  they,  dissatisfied  with  their  portions, 
made  war  against  each  other,  and  even  against  their  father. 
After  Louis'  death,  a  terrible  battle  between  the  brothers 
at    Fontenaye    was    followed    by   the    Treaty 

of  Verdun,^  which   divided   the   dominions  of  *   ^^' 

Charles  the  Great  among  his  three  grandsons.  The  emperor 
Lothaire  had  Italy,  and  a  long,  narrow  territory  reaching 
from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  German  Ocean,  including 
the  two  capitals,  Rome  and  Aix.*  Louis,  henceforth  called 
tJu  German,  had  the  countries  north  and  east  of  the  Rhine, 
while  Latin  France,  west  of  the  Rhone  and  Sa6ne,  was 
allotted  to  Charles  the  Bald. 

315.  For  more  than  a  hundred  years  the  Empire  could 
scarcely  be  said  to  exist,  though  its  titles  were  worn,  in 
turn,  by  all  three  branches  of  Charlemagne's  family.  The 
real  power  rested   in   the   great   dukes   and   margraves,  or 


*The  "Middle  Kingdom"  of  Lothaire  fell  apart,  under  his  sons, 
into  its  three  natural  divisions:  Italy,  Burgundy,  and  Lorraine. 
The  latter  was  soon  divided :  Lower  Lorraine  including  the  Nether- 
lands south  of  the  Rhine,  while  Upper  Lorraine  continued  to  be  a 
great  duchy  on  the  borders  of  France  and  Germany.  Burgundy  was 
likewise  divided  into  two  kingdoms,  Upper  and  Lower,  the  latter 
having  a  new  name,  Provence. 


1 88  MEDIEVAL   HISTORY. 

marquises,  who  were  the  defenders  of  Europe  against  a 
host  of  enemies.  The  Magyars,  a  new  race  of  Huns,  were 
over-running  the  continent  from  the  north-east;  the  Med- 
iterranean swarmed  with  Saracen  pirates  (§305),  and  the 
Northmen,  wild  sea-rovers  from  beyond  the  BaUic,  were 
ravaging  all  the  Atlantic  coasts.  During  these  calamities, 
those  who  were  bravest  and  ablest  naturally  rose  into 
power.  Thus  the  counts  of  Anjou  and  Paris  on  the  west, 
the  dukes  of  Saxony,  Thuringia,  Franconia,  Bavaria,  and 
Suabia  on  the  east,  the  marquises  of  Friuli,  Spoleto,  and 
Tuscany  in  Italy,  were  really  greater  princes  than  those 
whom  they  acknowledged  as  their  lords. 

316.  The  Feudal  System  was  now  in  force  through- 
out the  Western  Empire;  /.  ^.,  knights  and  nobles  held 
their  lands  on  condition  of  military  service  and  homage 
to  the  chief  who  had  granted  them.  ''Great  vassals" 
held  directly  from  the  king  or  emperor;  but  they  had 
vassals  under  them,  until  the  whole  land  was  parceled 
out  in  "knight's  fees,"  some  of  them  barely  large  enough 
to  hold  a  castle.  When  a  king  made  war,  he  summoned 
his  vassals,  who  in  turn  summoned  theirs;  and,  when  all 
met  at  the  appointed  place,  the  great  army  was  made  up 
of  a  cluster  of  litde  armies.  The  great  lords  vied  with 
each  other  in  the  multitude  of  their  retainers;  the  knights, 
in  their  costly  armor  and  skillful  horsemanship,  and  all  in 
their  bravery  in  the  fight.  When  there  was  no  real  war, 
mock  combats,  called  tilts  and  tourneys,  were  often  held, 
to  cultivate  and  display  their  skill. 

317.  The  ceremony  by  which  feudal  obligation  was  ac- 
knowledged, was  called  homage^  because  the  vassal,  kneel- 
ing before  his  king  or  lord,  vowed  to  be  his  mail  in  life 
and  limb.  In  return,  the  chief  was  bound  to  protect  his 
vassal  against  injustice  or  violence,  and  to  punish  any  who 
injured  him.  The  poor  people  who  cultivated  the  lands, 
and   were    given    away  with    them,    had    no    rights    except 


THE   nOL  Y  ROMAN  EMPIRE.  189 

what   humanity  would   concede — that  of  being   protected 

with  tlicir  families  in  time  of  danger. 

318.  A  king  sometimes  did  homage  to  another  king  for 
lands  within  his  dominion;  the  kings  of  the  Franks  even 
did  homage  to  the  abbot  of  St.  Denis  for  their  county  of 
Paris.  The  kings  of  Naples,  as  we  shall  see,  held  their 
whole  realm  as  a  **fief  of  St.  Peter;"  and  some  of  the 
popes  insisted  that  all  kingdoms  ought  to  be  so  held. 

319.  The  "feudal  tenure,"  as  it  is  called,  gradually 
took  the  place  of  all  other  holdings.  Absolute  owners  of 
land  were  glad  to  put  themselves  under  the  protection  of 
some  powerful  lord,  especially  of  the  great  abbots,  whose 
lands  were  more  secure  and  better  tilled  than  any  others. 
So  it  came  to  pass  that  the  Church  owned  half  the  terri- 
tories of  western  Europe. 

320.  After  the  descendants  of  Charlemagne  had  proved 
unfit  to  reign,  several  great  chiefs  in  Italy  and  Provence 
fought  for  the  imperial  crown  until  the  Pope  called  an- 
other king  out  of  Germany  to  end  their  disputes.  This 
was  O'tho  the  Great,  who  was  crowned  at  Rome,  A.  D. 
962.  His  father,  Henry  the  Fowler,^  had  been  duke  of 
Saxony,  and  was  elected  king  of  the  Germans.  In  many 
fierce  batdes  he  had  subdued  the  pagan  Wends  and  the 
Magyars,  and  had  planted  in  the  eastern  wilderness  many 
towns,  to  be  centers  of  orderly  life  and  strongholds  against 
the  barbarians. 

321.  The  crown  of  the  ''Holy  Roman  Empire,''  as  it 
now  began  to  be  called,  was  bestowed,  for  more  than  800 
years  upon  the  kings  chosen  by  the  German  princes. 
They  were  first  crowned  at  Aix  as  Emperors-Elect,  but 
could  not  bear  the  titles  of  Caesar  and  Augustus  until  they 
had  received  the  imperial  diadem  from  the  hands  of  the 
Pope.  They  also  assumed  the  iron  crown  of  Italy  at 
Milan,  and  some  of  the  emperors  wore  that  of  Burgundy 
at  Aries  (§314  note). 


I90  MEDIALVAL   HISTORY. 

322.  One  third  part  of  Italy  still  obeyed  the  emperors 
of  the  East,  whose  forces  Otho  and  his  son  vainly  attempted 
to   expel.      Otho  II.  married  a  Greek  princess;^  and   their 

son,  Otho  III., ^ who  was  crowned  emperor  at 
'  ^^  '  sixteen,  was  the  ''wonder  of  the  world"  for 
his  brilliant  genius  and  his  high  aims  in  governing.  But 
he  died  in  the  very  dawn  of  his  manhood,  and  the  bright 
promise  passed  away.  The  choice  of  the  German  princes 
now  fell  upon  Henry  II.,  duke  of  Bavaria,  and,  after  his 
death,  upon  Con'rad  II.,  chief  of  the  Franconian  line. 

323.  Under   Henry  III.,  son  of  Conrad,   the  power  of 

the  empire  reached  its  height.  He  rescued 
.  104&-1056.  j^Q^^^g  ixom  the  disgrace  of  several  unworthy 
popes,  who  had  used  their  high  office  for  selfish  and  corrupt 
purposes.  Setting  aside  three  who  laid  claim  to  the  dignity, 
he  appointed  a  better  man  than  any  of  them;  and  the 
emperors  thenceforth  claimed  the  right  to  nominate  the 
popes. 

324.  Henry  HI.  died  suddenly,  A.  D.  1056,  when  his 
only  son  was  but  a  child.  While  the  litde  prince  was 
growing  to  manhood,  Hil'debrand,^  a  Tuscan  monk,  gained 
great  power  in  the  Church,  and  became  almost  as  important 
a  figure  in  the  panorama  of  those  Dark  Ages  as  Charlemagne 
himself.  He,  too,  had  a  plan  for  bringing  order  out  of  the 
misery  and  confusion  of  the  times  ^- to  subject  all  ranks 
and  classes  to  the  absolute  authority  of  the  popes.  As  the 
vicegerents  of  God  upon  earth,  he  taught  that  they  had 
the  right  to  crown  or  depose  kings  at  their  pleasure. 

325.  About  the  time  that  Henry  IV.  attained  his  majority, 
A.  D.  1073,  Hildebrand  became  Pope  Gregory  VII.  Then 
began  a  violent  contest  between  the  two  rulers  of  Christen- 
dom. The  emperor  summoned  a  Diet  at  Worms,  which 
deposed  the  pope;  and  the  pope  convened  a  Council  at 
Rome,  which  dethroned  and  excommunicated  the  emperor. 
These  great   revolutions,  it  will   be   understood,  were  only 


HENA'Y  IV.   AT  CANOSSA.  191 

accomplished  on  parchment;  but  the  war  of  words  soon 
became  an  afRiir  of  hard  blows.  Henry  was  a  man  of 
proud  and  passionate  nature;  the  pope  was  equally  bold 
and  resolute,  and  on  his  side  were  enlisted  nearly  all  the 
intellect  and  learning  of  the  time,  as  well  as  the  sympathy 
of  the  common  people,  in  whose  rank  he  had  been  born. 
At  his  command  the  (ierman  bishops  and  abbots  declared 
against  Henry;  and  the  Saxons,  who  were  angry  at  the 
passing  of  the  crown  from  their  ducal  line  to  the  Franconian 
(§322),  broke  out  into  revolt.  In  this  desperate  case, 
Henry  crossed  the  Alps  in  winter  and  stood  barefoot  in  the 
snow  for  three  days  at  the  gates  of  the  Castle  of  Canossa' 
before  he  was  admitted  to  kiss  the  feet  of  Gregory  and 
humbly  confess  his  faults.  Even  this  did  not  save  him; 
a  rival  emperor  was  chosen;  and  though  Henry  defeated 
him,  and  oudived  Pope  Gregory  by  twenty  years,  yet  all 
his  life  was  embittered  by  the  malice  of  his  enemies. 
His  sons  rebelled  against  him,  with  the  aid  of  the  popes, 
and  at  last  he  died  of  a  broken  heart,  in  poverty  and 
humiliation. 

Trace,  on  Map  7,  the  conquests  of  Charles  Martel.  Of  Charle- 
magne. The  divisions  made  by  the  Treaty  of  Verdun.  Of  Lothaire's 
Middle  Kingdom.  The  great  fiefs  mentioned  in  2315.  Point  out 
Aix-la-Chapelle,  Aries.     Milan,  Rome. 

Read  Book  IV,  of  Parke  Godwin's  History  of  France ;  Bryce's 
"  Holy  Roman  Empire ; "  and  a  chapter  on  the  Feudal  System  in 
Hallam's  *'  Middle  Ages." 

NOTES. 

1.  The  ftret  appearance  of  the  name  "Franks"  in  history  is  said  to 
have  been  in  a  rude  camp-song,  sung  by  Aurellan's  soldiers  (§262)  as 
they  marched  out  of  Rome  on  their  way  to  the  Persian  wars: 

"MiUe  Sarmatas,  mille  Francoit,  semel  et  semel  occidimus; 
Miile  mille  mille  mlUe  mille  Persas  quaerimus." 

It  merely  meant  /re<?,  and  designated  the  unconquored  German  tribes 
on  the  middle  and  lower  Rhine.     These  tribes  were  in  two  principal 

groups:  the  Salians,  west  of  the  Yssel ;  and  the  Ripuarians,  or  bank- 
efenders,  on  either  side  of  the  Rhine  above  and  below  Cologne.    The 
Emperor  Julian  admired  their  brave  and  independent  spirit;  after  bis 


192  MEDlAiVAL   HISTORY. 


time  many  Franks  took  service  in  the  Roman  armies,  and  tlieir  chiefs 
often  filled  higli  offices,  both  civil  and  military. 

Clovis  was  chief  of  the  Salian  Franks;  the  yet  greater  family  of  the 
Carlovingians,  who  succeeded  his,  seem  to  have  been  of  the  Ripuarian 
group.    Both  had  important  parts  to  play  in  European  history. 

When  Charlemagne  came  to  the  throne,  the  Franks  were  already 
the  acknowledged  heads  of  all  the  German  tribes  excepting  the  Sax- 
ons, and  were  thus  the  champions  of  western  Christendom  against 
both  the  Saracens  on  the  south-west,  and  the  worshipers  of  Odin  Oh 
the  north-east.  The  Saracen  inroads  had  been  effectually  checked  by 
the  great  victory  of  Charles  Martel;  the  Saxons,  the  only  remaining 
upholders  of  Gernian  heathenism,  gave  him  occupation  enough  for  the 
greater  part  of  his  long  reign.  It  was  easy  to  defeat  them  in  many 
successive  battles,  but,  as  there  was  no  responsible  head  of  the  whole 
people,  one  chief  naturally  disregarded  engagements  which  another 
had  made.  Charlemagne  was,  therefore,  often  recalled  from  his  cam- 
paigns beyond  the  Alps  or  the  Pyrenees,  to  quell  some  fierce  outbreak  of 
the  Saxons.  Their  greatest  hero  and  leader  was  Witikind,  called  "the 
Great,"  who  had  married  a  sister  of  the  king  of  Denmark,  and  was 
aided  by  him  in  his  wars  with  the  Franks.  But,  after  the  massacre 
of  Verdun,  in  which  4,500  Saxons  were  destroyed,  and  a  subsequent 
defeat  near  the  river  Hase,  even  Witikind  submitted,  and  was  bap- 
tized in  A.  D.  885,  with  many  of  his  followers.  Hundreds  of  irrecon- 
cilable Saxons  fled  to  the  Baltic  peninsulas,  and  stirred  up  the  north- 
men  (§g  326-328)  to  many  attacks  by  sea  upon  the  Frankish  dominions. 

Charlemagne  regarded  himself— and  more  especially  after  his  coro- 
nation at  Rome— as  divinely  appointed  to  establish  and  maintain  or- 
der and  justice  in  his  great  dominion.  It  is  interesting,  in  this  point 
of  view,  to  know  that  his  favorite  book— often  read  to  him  at  his 
meals— was  St.  Augustine's  "City  of  God,"— that  noble  work  in  which 
the  Bishop  of  Hippo  reassured  his  followers,  during  the  calamitous 
times  (g283),  when  the  Roman  empire  was  falling  under  the  assaults 
of  Goths  and  Vandals,  by  predictions  of  the  new  Kingdom  of  Right- 
eousness and  Peace,  which  Christ  had  come  to  establish. 

The  Encyclopcedia  Britannica  V.  403,  says:  "Thus,  from  the  Eider 
to  Sicily,  and  from  the  Ebro  to  the  Theiss,  the  will  of  Charles  was  su- 
preme; while  over  the  Slavonic  tribes,  as  far  as  the  Oder  or  even  the 
Vistula,  his  influence  was  felt  in  no  feeble  way.  The  genius  and  en- 
ergy of  one  man  had  succeeded  in  arresting  the  progress  of  political 
disintegration,  and,  in  the  Interest  of  culture  and  constructive  order, 
in  welding  into  one  great  monarchy  all  the  races  of  continental  Ger- 
many. .  .  .  Charles  was  far  more  than  an  ordinary  conqueror.  He 
displayed  not  less  energy  In  the  internal  organization  and  administra- 
tion of  his  kingdom  than  in  foreign  affairs.  The  whole  empire  was  di- 
vided into  districts,  presided  over  by  counts,  who  were  responsible  for 
their  good  government;  while  in  the  exposed  frontiers  or  marches,  other 
counts  {Markgrafen)  were  stationed  with  forces  capable  of  defending 
them.  .  .  .  Two  great  assemblies  were  held  every  year— the  Champ- 
de-Mai  (May-field),  which  was  a  kind  of  national  muster,  essentially 
military,  and  another  in  autumn,  of  the  high  officials,  of  a  deliberative 
and  advisory  nature.  In  the  Capitularies  (edicts  issued  as  the  necessities 
of  the  empire  required)  in  his  endeavors  to  promote  education,  in  his 
organization  of  the  church  and  the  definitive  institution  of  tithes,  in 
the  unsuccessful  attempt  to  join  the  Danube  and  the  Rhine  by  a  canal, 
he  gave  proof  of  the  noblest  desire  to  conserve  and  propagate  the  cult- 
ure of  former  times." 

2,  Germany  dates  her  national  existence  from  the  Treaty  of  Verdun. 
Eastern  or  Teutonic  was  then  forever  separated  from  Western  or  Latin 
France,  which,  in  later  times,  gained  exclusive  possession  of  the  name, 
the  heart  of  the  Frankish  dominions  being  known  as  Franconia.  The 
oaths  taken  respectively  by  the  armies  of  Louis  the  German,  and  his 
brother  Charles,  show  that  the  two  languages  were  already  distinct. 
The  P'rankish  conquerors  of  Gaul  were  largely  Latinized  by  intercourse 
with  the  former  subjects  of  the  Caesars;  and,  while  the  soldiers  of  Louis 
swore  allegiance  in  Old  German,  the  oath  of  Charles'  army  was  almost 
equally  like  Latin,  Proven9al  and  modern  French.  The  Teutonic  and 
Roman  elements  in  European  society  and  speech  were  from  that  mo- 
ment separate. — Manual  of  Mediceval  and  Modem  History/,  p.  39. 


MAP  No.  VIL 


EMPERORS  OF  ROME  AND   KINGS  OF 
THE  GERMANS. 


Charlemagne  A.  D.  8c». 

Louis  the  Mild  814. 

Lothaire  840. 

Louis  IL,  the  German  855. 

Charles  II.,  the  Bald  875. 

Charles  III.,  the  Fat    876-888. 


Holy  Roman  Empire. 

Otho  the  Great,  of  Saxony  962. 

973. 

983. 

1002. 

1024. 

1039. 

1056. 

1 106. 

1125. 


House  of  Hapsburg. 


Otho  IL, 

Otho  III., 

Henry  1 1.,  of  Bavaria 

Conrad  IL,  of  Franconia 

Henry  III.,  " 

Henry  IV.,  " 

Henry  V.,     " 

Lothaire  IL,  of  Saxony 


House  of  Hohenstaufen. 


Conrad  III. 
Frederic  I.  Barbarossa 
Henry  VL 
Philip,  Otho  IV. 
Frederic  1 1. 
Conrad  IV. 


1 138. 
1 1 52. 
II91. 
1 198. 
1212. 
1250. 


Rudolph  I.  A.  D. 

Adolph  of  Nassau 
Albert  of  Hapsburg 
Henry  VIL  1308- 


William  of  Holland     1250-1256. 


Louis  V. 

Charles  IV.,  of  Luxemburg 

Wenceslaus 

Rupert 

Sigismund 

Albert  II. 

Frederic  III. 

Maximilian  I. 

Charles  V. 

Ferdinand  I. 

Maximilian  II. 

Rudolph  II. 

Matthias 

Ferdinand  IL 

Ferdinand  III. 

Leopold  I. 
j  Joseph  I. 
!  Charles  VL 
I  Charles  VII. 
I  Francis  I. 
I  Joseph  II. 
I  Leopold  II. 

Francis  IL 

Empire  overthrown 


1273. 
1292. 
1298. 
1313- 
1330- 
1347- 
1378. 
1400. 
1410. 
1438. 
1440. 

1493- 

1519. 

1558. 

1564. 

1576. 

1612. 

1619. 

1637. 

1658. 

1705. 

1711. 

1742. 

1745- 

1765. 

1790. 

1792. 

1806. 


a                                     * 

*    '^^-A.  V                       \  \       %  \^-^ 

% 

01  J 

i           ^^^^ 

EUR 

Charles  t 

h  /"^"^^^          ^   /  \.^^^ 

o  -                    J      V                               M^                          ( (       \    ^          J            \      ''^                M 

"^ "   )           \  y^^'X.  Ix/   "^   \3  \   ^  K 

L    /       ~^v     \  /t     "w        >A    N|  \    _^i3ik- 

^ 

^^.^.y^X^   7 

s^^fpl 

\.              ^i-'"i           c         ?            ^^ 

/            X-*!     ^    \WCS^    /^-SH 

JV/'^i'^^^:>/X 

r.     ^^^^.  -v^ 

/''^vJ^hJ^    --<^ 

^^"^^fa  ^ 

a 

v^-^'-A  rfe?  /^^/''^^ 

O 

o 

^^^'^^^     /                      J^^y'^^^A\    \  ° 

^^/                 r  «r^^p|/l   ;- 

/       ^         ^--^           r-— !f  #,   /<  (O       \^  ifii^    ^ 

/              ^        '^^^"-^    **^N4?//6v       >*^       r? 

/                 A       o     ^^.^  ^^^l  ^^JT^  \v^ 

/           ^    '^^      ^^i!L7^i^e^*N/         \ 

/                  •^                   -^    r^-^*^                      \ 

/                     "^                     /   ^~~""--^                 \ 

<S^                                               ^ 

NOTES.  193 


3.  Tho  hcndship  of  (he  CJcrman  nntionH  had  nowjiassed  fh>Tn  the 
Franks  to  tho  Saxons.  On  hlsdoath-l>od,  tho  Km poror  Conrad  I.,  though 
a  Frank,  and  a  fornuT  (»pponont  of  Duke  Honry  on  tho  battio-tloi(l, 
roooinniondcd  him  to  tlio  (lorman  prinoe-s  for  thoir  clilof.  TIjo  pagan 
Slavonians  wi'ro  now  ovorrunninK  tiu"  nortli  oustorn  Ixirdors  of  tlie 
omplro.  llonry  wrosto*!  from  tlu-m  tho  Mark  of  Hran(h'nl)urg.  which 
booamo,  in  ixiwr  agos,  tho  nuoh'us  of  th«>  kingdom  of  Prussia,  lie  sub- 
soquontly  gained  a  doclsivo  victory  ovor  tho  still  heathen  MagyarB,  at 
Moi-sobui-g,  In  Saxony.    Ho  rolgnod  A.  D.  01t>-ft*W. 

4.  This  was  Theophano,  or  Thoophanla  (ji. "02),  daughter  of  Romanus 
II.  antl  stoi)-daughtor  of  Nicophorus  Phocas,  Emperor  of  the  East.  She 
brought  to  tho  (jiorman  court  much  of  the  musical  and  literary  culture 
which  still  reigned  at  Constantinople;  and  her  son  happily  combined 
the  best  qualities  of  Greek  and  Teutonic  genius. 


5,  Otho  III.  was  only  three  years  old  at  his  father's  death,  but  he 
..as  sixteen  when  Pope  Gregory  V.  placed  the  imperial  crown  upon  his 
head  at  Ilome  in  A.  I).  {«>«».  Home  was  still  ruled  by  Crescentius,  a  fac- 
tious noble,  who,  taking  advantage  of  tiie  roiil  miseries  of  the  age  and 
the  blind  enthusiasm  of  the  people,  had  ohtMined  the  title  of  consul 


tlous  noble,  who,  taking  advantage  of  tiie  roiil  miseries  of  the  age  and 
the  blind  enthusiasm  of  the  people,  had  ohtMined  the  title  of  consul 
(§182),  with  supreme  power,  in  A.  D.  {KS(»,  He  wns  defeated  by  the  com- 
bined forces  of  the  Pone  and  the  emperor,  and  was  l)eli«a(I»d  by  Otho's 


command  In  99S.  Steuhania,the  widow  of  Crescentius,  (icsiring  to  avenge 
his  death,  is  said  to  Iiave  first  won  the  entire  contideiice  and  aftection 
of  the  young  emperor  by  her  charms,  and  then  to  have  destroyed  his 
life  by  poison. 

6.  Though  of  humble  birth,  Hildebrand  had  acquired  the  highest  In- 
fluence by  his  tidents,  energy,  and  zeal,  so  that  even  kings  submitted 
their  plans  to  his  decision.  Five  successive  popes,  "  Leo.  Victor.  Stephen, 
Nicholas,  and  Alexander,  had  each  been  indebted  to  his  authority  for 
the  pontificate,  and  to  his  counsels  for  the  policy  with  which  it  had 
been  administered,"  when  the  spontaneous  acclamations  of  the  people. 
ochoinK,  as  was  then  believed,  the  voice  of  St.  Peter  himself,  declared 
him  raised  to  the  highest  dignity  in  the  church.  The  two  great  objects 
which  he  succeeded  in  securing  against  the  bitterest  opposition,  were 
the  celibacy  of  the  clorgj%  and  the  investiture  of  bishops  and  abbots  by 
the  popes  fnstead  of  by  secular  princes. 

His  reconciliation  with  Henry  was  only  apparent  and  transient.  As 
he  refused  to  bestow  tiie  imperial  crown,  without  which  Henry's  elec- 
tion by  the  German  princes  would  have  little  effc'Ct  (i'^ll),  Henry  set 
up  a  rival  pope,  Guibert,  who  crowned  him  at  Home,  while  Gregory 
took  refuge  in  the  castle  at  St.  Angclo. 

But  Robert  Guiscard  (?a'?l),  the  Norman  king  of  southern  Italy,  ad- 
vanced to  the  rescue,  and  the  emperor  made  a  hasty  retreat.  His  ad- 
herents in  Rome  kept  up  the  strife,  and,  in  the  pillage  and  conflagra- 
tion th.it  followed,  the  imi)erial  eitv  suffered  more  than  even  from  the 
Vandals.  "Him.self  a  voluntarv  exile,  Gregory  sought  in  the  castle  of 
Salerno,  and,  under  the  protection  of  the  Normans,  the  security  he  could 
no  longer  find  among  his  own  exasperated  subjects."  Worn  out  by  anx- 
iety and  toil,  he  recognized  the  approach  of  death.  "  He  forgave  and 
blessetl  and  absolved  his  enemies,  with  the  res<:)lute  exceptions  of  the 
emperor  and  the  anti-pope."  His  last  words  were:  "1  have  loved  right- 
eousness and  hated  iniquity;  and  therefore  I  die  in  exile!" 

7.  Canossa  was  the  favorite  residence  of  Matilda  of  Tuscany,  known 
as  "The  Great  Countess,"  who,  for  .sixty-one  yeare  (A.  D.  ia54-lllo)  after 
her  father's  death,— first,  in  connection  with  her  mother,  Beatrice,  and 
afterwards  alone,— ruled  a  great  portion  of  central  and  northern  Italy. 
She  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  figures  in  that  turbulent  age.  "Though 
she  married  Godfrey  of  Ijorraine  in  her  youth,  and  Guelpn  of  Bavaria 
in  her  more  mature  age,"  she  kept  her  sovereign  rights  over  her  own 
dominlon.s,  and  Is  chiefly  noted  for  her  devotion  to  the  church.  In  1077 
she  made  a  reversionary  grant  of  all  her  territories  to  tlie  i)apal  power. 
She  led  her  own  armies  to  battle,  and  such  were  her  aecniirements  that 
her  orders  were  oquallv  well  understood  by  her  Italian,  French,  and 
German  .soldiers,  while  they  were  intelligible  to  levies  from  almost 
every  part  of  Europe. 

Hist.-13. 


CHAPTER   V. 

THE   NORTHMEN. 


I  HE  last  of  the  northern  nations  who  con- 
quered a  place  in  southern  and  western 
Europe  were  the  natives  of  Denmark  and 
the  Scandinavian  peninsula;  but  these  were 
found  superior  to  all  the  rest,  excepting,  perhaps,  the 
Goths,  in  vigor  of  mind  and  body,  and  in  their  aptitude 
for  civilized  life.  Their  native  land  being  too  poor  to 
support  them  all,  multitudes  of  young  Northmen  sought 
their  fortunes  abroad.  As  early  as  the  eighth  century 
a  large  body  of  them  passed  overland  to  Constantinople, 
and   enlisted   in  the  guards  of  the  emperor  of  the   East. 

327.    Successive  bands  of  their  countrymen,   moving  in 
the  same  direction,  conquered  the  Slavic  king- 
doms   of    Novgorod    and    Kiev,    and    became 
founders    of    the    Russian    Empire.      Ru'ric    was    the    first 
Norman   ruler   of  Russia.     Christianity  was   introduced   by 
(194) 


NORMAN  SETTLEMENrS,  tqi; 


Greek  missionaries,  and,  in  A.   D.  955,   Queen  Ol'ga'  was 
baptized    at    Constantinople.      Vlad'imir-  the 
Great    increased    his    empire    by    conquest,  '°**' 

and  civilized  it  by  many  churches  and  schools.  Yar'oslav 
was  a  still  greater  benefactor,  for  he  procured  the  transla- 
tion of  the  Holy  Scriptures  and  many  other  books  into  the 
JSlavonic  language,  and  made  the  first  Russian  code  of  laws. 

328.  (ircater  numbers  of  the  Northmen'  became  sea- 
rovois.  ilu  terror  of  all  western  Europe.  Wherever  they 
landed,  the  smoking  ruins  of  houses,  churches,  and  mon- 
asteries marked  their  track.  At  first  they  only  ravaged 
the  coasts;  then,  as  they  grew  bolder  and  more  numerous, 
they  established  fortified  camps  near  the  mouths  of  the 
rivers,  whence  they  pursued  their  depredations  over  a  wide 
extent  of  country.  At  length  their  numbers  and  powers 
were  so  great  that  they  settled  themselves  on  extensive 
tracts  of  land,  the  inhabitants  of  which  they  had  expelled 
or  destroyed.  Thus  a  great  part  of  eastern  England  and 
north-western  F'rance  became  their  permanent  abode,  and 
they  now  proved  that  extraordinary  genius  for  order  and 
good  government  which  no  one  certainly  would  have 
expected  of  the  terrible  sea-robbers. 

329.  One  condition  exacted  by  King  Alfred^*  in  En- 
gland, from  Gu'thrun,  the  Danish  chief,  and  by  King 
Charles,  in  France,  from  Rollo,  was  that  both,  with  their 
principal  followers,  should  become  Christians.  This  they 
did  with  apparent  good  faith.  The  English  Danes  could 
not,  however,  prevent  their  pagan  countrymen  over  the 
sea  from  trying  their  good  fortune ;  and,  under  the  weak 
reign  of  Eth'elred   II.,  they  gained  such  power  that   Eng- 


*Alfrecl,  the  West  Saxon,  A.  D.  871-901,  was  the  best  of  the  early 
English  kings.  By  many  years  hard  fighting,  he  reclaimed  his  king- 
dom from  the  Danes,  and  then  civilized  it  by  wise  laws,  schools,  and 
boote,  which  he  either  translated,  or  caused  to  be  translated,  from 
GreJik  and  Latin.     He  is  truly  called  Alfred  the  Great. 


196  MEDIEVAL   HISTORY. 

land  was   added,  for  a  time,  to   the   Scandinavian   Empire 
of   Knut. 

330.  The  duchy  of  Normandy  had,  meanwhile,  become 
the  richest  and  best  governed  part  of  France.  A  succes- 
sion of  able  rulers  was  descended  from  Rollo,  and  many 
beautiful  cathedrals  and  abbey-churches  expressed  their  zeal 
for  the  religion  which  they  had  so  lately  adopted.  Their 
restless  spirits  and  their  new  faith  were  equally  indulged 
by  pilgrimages,  which,  indeed,  many  western  Christians 
undertook,  but  of  which  the  Normans  were  especially  fond. 
On  their  way  to  the  tomb  of  our  Lord,  or  the  shrines  of 
His  saints  and  apostles,  the  Norman  knights  had  their  eyes 
wide  open  for  any  warlike  adventures  that  might  offer. 

331.  In  passing  through  southern  Italy,  they  did  not 
fail  to  remark  the  weakness  and  wealth  of  the  Greek  cities, 
which,  though  belonging  to  the  Eastern  Empire,  were 
always  exposed  to  the  attacks  of  Saracens  or  Lombards. 
By  taking  sides  with  one  party  or  the  other,  the  Normans 
gained  great  power  for  themselves,  and,  at  length,  became 
masters  of  twelve  cities,  which  they  formed  into  a  military 
republic.     After  a  victory  over  the   Pope's   forces  at   Civ- 

itella,  they  declared  themselves  vassals  of  the 
'  ^°^^  Church,  and  so  gained  his  favor  and  protec- 
tion (§  317).  Under  Robert  Guiscard,  their  duke,  they 
gradually  drove  out  the  Greek  magistrates  of  the  cities  and 
conquered  from  the  Lombards  their  last  possession,  thus 
making  the  Norman  power  supreme  in  southern  Italy.  At 
the  same  time  Roger  Guiscard  was  conquering  Sicily*  from 


*Of  the  Normans  in  Sicily,  an  English  historian  says:  **No  con- 
queror ever  deserved  better  of  the  conquered.  The  noble  island  of 
Sicily,  so  long  the  battle-field  of  Europe  and  Africa,  became,  under 
Norman  kings,  the  one  example  of  really  equal  and  tolerant  govern- 
ment which  the  world  could  then  show.  Under  the  Norman  scepter, 
the  two  most  civilized  races  of  the  world,  Greeks  and  Saracens,  could 
live  together  in  peace,  and  enrich  their  common  country  with  results 
of  skill  and  industry  such  as  no  northern  realm  could  rival." 


NOKAfANS  IN  ENGLAND.  197 


the  Saracens,  and  held  it  as  a  fief  from  his  brother.     Thus 
arose  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  or  the  Two  Sicilies. 

332.  A  still  more  important  Norman  conquest  was  that 
of  England.  Duke  William,'^  the  sixth  from  Rollo,  was  a 
cousin  of  Edward  the  Confessor,  the  last  English  king  of 
the  family  of  Alfred.  William  declared  that  Edward,  hav- 
ing no  children,  had  promised  him  the  English  crown. 
This  weakest  of  claims  was,  howc\d\  supported  by  strong 
arguments,  in  the  favor  of  the  Pope  and  the  arms  of 
60,000  warriors.  He  landed,  with  a  great  army,  in  the 
south    of    England;    Harold,    the    Saxon    king 

chosen  by  the  people,   was  slain  in  the  Battle 

of  Hastings;  and  the  whole  country  submitted,  in  time,  to 

** William   the  Conqueror." 

333.  He  divided  the  land  in  fiefs  among  his  barons,  and 
gave  all  the  chief  places  in  church  and  government  to 
foreigners.  The  Saxon  nobles  descended  to  the  rank  of 
thanes,  or  country  gentlemen.  William  was  the  ablest 
prince  of  his  age,  and  he  usually  aimed  to  be  just;  but  he 
was  terribly  cruel  and  obstinate  when  his  will  was  crossed. 
Among  his  most  tyrannical  acts  was  the  devastation  of 
a  belt  of  land,  60  miles  wide,  in  northern  England,  by 
which  100,000  people  were  made  homeless,  and  thousands 
perished  of  hunger  and  cold.  This  was  done  to  guard 
against  invasions  from  Scotland  and  Norway.  There  was 
even  less  excuse  for  the  burning  of  60  villages,  in  Hamp- 
shire, to  provide  the  *'New  Forest"  for  the  king's  favorite 
sport  of  hunting. 

334.  William  Rufus  (A.  D.  1087 -i  100),  the  second  son 
and  successor  of  the  Conqueror,  was  an  able  but  wicked 
king,  caring  more  for  his  own  wild  pleasures  than  for 
the  dearest  interests  of  his  people.  He  was  killed  by  an 
arrow,  while  hunting  in  the  **New  Forest."  His  brother, 
Henry  I,  had  been  carefully  educated  for  his  duties  as 
an    English    sovereign,    and    in    many    ways    pleased    the 


ipS  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 

people,  especially  by  marrying  the  heiress  of  their  Saxon 
kings.  But  he  unjustly  deprived  his  eldest  brother,  Robert, 
of  his  Norman  inheritance,  and  kept  him  shut  up  in  Car- 
diff Castle   for   the  last  twenty-eight  years  of  his  life. 

335.  Henry's  only  son,  William,  was  drowned  in  the 
Channel,  and  the  king  attempted  to  secure  the  English 
crown  to  his  daughter  MatiFda.  Some  of  the  barons 
would  have  sustained  her  claim;  but  her  haughty  spirit 
offended  them,  and,  after  ten  years  of  distracting  civil 
war,    Matilda    fled    to    the    continent,    while    her    cousin, 

Stephen,  was  acknowledged  as  king.  The 
•  "35  "54-  pgQpjg  suffered  infinite  miseries  as  a  con- 
sequence of  these  royal  disputes.  The  land  was  left  un- 
cultivated; for  the  poor  people  had  no  encouragement  to 
sow  or  plant,  when  the  fruits  of  their  toil  were  sure  to 
be  swept  away  by  knightly  robbers  whose  castles  com- 
manded the  whole  country.  Famine  created  solitudes, 
where  once  had  been  villages  full  of  happy  homes.  The 
dispute  was  settled  in  A.  D.  1153,  by  the  death  of  Ste- 
phen's only  son.  He  then  consented  to  acknowledge 
Matilda's  son,  Henry,  as  his  heir. 

336.  France  During  the  Dark  Ages.— It  has  been 
seen  how  the  feeble  successors  of  Clovis  gave  way  to  the 
family  of  Pepin,  and  how  the  dominions  of  Charlemagne 
were  divided  among  his  grandsons  (§  314).  The  western 
part  of  those  dominions  remained  longer  under  Carlo- 
vingian  rule,  than  did  either  Italy  or  Germany,  and  kept 
exclusively  the  name  of  France.  The  descendants  of 
Charlemagne  had  but  little  of  his  genius  for  war  and  gov- 
ernment; and  the  defense  of  the  country  against  Saxon 
and  Norman  pirates  was  left  to  the  great  nobles,  espe- 
cially to  Robert  the  Strong,  Count  of  Anjou  and  Orleans. 
Three  times  Paris  was  besieged  by  the  Northmen,  twice 
it  was  taken  by  storm,  and  the  banks  of  the  Seine  were 
whitened  with  the  bones  of  its  murdered  people.     Charles 


HOUSE  OF  CAPET  IN  FRANCE.  199 

III.,  called   the   Fat,  who,   for  a   little  while,   reOnited   the 
whole    empire   of   Charlcmajirnc,    oiiK    biibcd 

,  «.         ,      ,  ,      .  A.  D.  885,  886. 

the  pirates  and  suffered  them   to  carry  their 

ravages    farther    inland,    while    he    spent    his    strength    in 

fighting  the  members  of  his  own  family. 

337.  Count  Robert  was  killed  in  battle,  but  his  son, 
Eu'des,  bravely  defended  Paris,  and  was  called  to  the 
throne  from  which  Charles  had  been  deposed  for  his  cow- 
ardice, A.  D.  887.  But  a  small  party  crowned  Charles 
the  Simi)lc,  wlio  reigned  north  of  the  Seine  while  Eudes 
lived,  and  afterwards  over  all  France.  He  gave  up  a 
large  region,  in  north-western  France,  to  Rollo  the  Dane, 
on  condition  of  his  followers  becoming  Christian  and  civ- 
ilized. To  do  them  justice,  the  wild  sea-rovers  soon  ex- 
celled their  masters  in  the  arts  of  orderly  living  (§  330). 

338.  Under  the  descendants  of  Charles  IV.,  the  real 
power  rested  with  Hugh  the  Great,  Duke  of  France  and 
Count  of  Paris,  who,  for  thirty-three  years,  set  up  and 
put  down  princes  at  his  pleasure.  His  son,  Hugh  Capet, 
was  chosen  king  by  the  nobles,  A.  D.  987,  and  his  family 
continued  to  rule  France  more  than  eight  centuries.  His 
actual  power  was  less,  however,  than  that  of  some  of  his 
vassals.  When  he  tried  to  compel  the  obedience  of  one 
by  demanding,  "Who  made  you  a  count?"  the  reply 
was,  "Who  made  you  a  king?"  Continental  Europe 
was  then  divided  into  great  fiefs,  and  royalty  was  little 
more  than  a  shadow.  The  dukes  of  Normandy,  Bur- 
gundy, and  A(iuitaine,  the  counts  of  Flanders,  Champagne, 
and  Toulouse,  were  sovereign  in  their  own  dominions, 
paying  little  respect  and  still   less  obedience  to  the  king. 

339.  The  reigns  of  Hugh  and  his  son,  Robert  the 
Pious,    were    among    the    darkest   periods    of 

history.     Under   a   deluded    notion    that    the       '      987-1031. 
year    1000  was   to   be    the    end  of  the  world,   the    terror- 


200  MEDIEVAL   HISTORY. 

Stricken  people  refused  to  cultivate  the  ground.  Famine 
and  pestilence  ensued,  and  some  of  the  starved  peasantry 
even  fed  on  human  flesh.  A  terrified  crowd  filled  the 
churches;  many  princes  and  rich  nobles  bestowed  their 
wealth  upon  the  monks,  and  set  off  on  pilgrimages  to  the 
Holy  Land,  where  it  was  believed  Christ  would  soon 
appear.  When  the  fatal  year  had  passed,  the  western 
world  breathed  again;  but  it  was  long  before  the  injury 
springing  from  this  delusion  was  repaired. 

Another  and  long  prevailing  source  of  misery  was  found 
in  the  private  wars  of  the  barons.  No  one  dreamed  of 
mercy  or  even  common  justice  toward  the  peasants,  whose 
fields  were  laid  waste  and  their  families  reduced  to  starva- 
tion by  the  quarrels  of  their  masters.  Under  Henry  I. 
(1031-1060),  the  French  clergy  succeeded  in  establishing 
what  was  called  the  "Truce  of  God,"  and,  in  some 
degree,  abated  these  calamities.  All  fighting  was  for- 
bidden between  Wednesday  evening  and  Monday  morning, 
as  well  as  on  all  holy  days. 

Trace,  on  Map  No.  7,  the  conquests  and  settlements  of  the 
Northmen. 

Read  Freeman's  "Norman  Conquest;"  Palgrave's  "Normandy 
and  England;"  Green's  "Short  History  of  the  English  People;" 
Hume's  or  Knight's  "History  of  England;"  Michelet's  "History 
of  France." 

NOTES. 

1.  Olga  is  regarded  in  Russia  as  a  saint,  and  a  special  patroness  of 
the  imperial  family. 

She  was  the  wife  of  Igor,  son  and  successor  of  Ruric,  and,  upon  her 
husband's  death,  A.  D.  945,  she  became  regent  for  her  son.  Ten  years 
later,  she  made  a  visit  to  Constantinople  with  a  brilliant  and  imposing 
train,  and  received  baptism  in  the  Church  of  St.  Sophia.  She  died  at  a 
great  age  in  969. 

2.  Vladimir  was  the  first  Christian  sovereign  of  Russia.  He  sent  an 
embassy  in  988  to  Constantinople,  demanding  in  marriage  the  Greek 
princess  Anna,  sister  of  the  emperors  Basil  II  and  Constantine  IX.,  and 
marched  an  army  to  the  Crimea,  by  way  of  enforcing  his  suit.  This  was 
successful,  and  Vladimir  became  not  only  a  faithful  ally  of  the  emperors, 
but  a  zealous  adherent  of  the  Greek  Church  and  enemy  of  the  ancient 
paganism.  Christianity  became  the  established  religion  of  his  realm; 
and  he  founded  many  schools  and  churches  to  spread  its  influence 
among  his  people. 


NOTES.  201 


3.  The  eleventh  century  seems  to  have  been  the  great  age  of  Scandl- 
uavhvn  enterprise;  for,  while  the  Normjins  were  misfilnn  tholr  eonqnests 
In  Italy,  Slellv.  Uussia,  ami  Kn«lau«l,  the  Iceland le  branch  of  their  fam- 
ily had  already  ree«)nn«)lteriKl  the  North  Amerlwm  coa«t,  and  were 
making  settlenienti*,  If  Irmlltlon  l>e  true,  within  the  present  limits  of 
the  Unlteil  Stales. 

Greenlaiul  was  discovered  and  eolonlzcti  by  them  In  A.  D.  98.)- and 
fifteen  years  later,  Ixjlf  the  Fortunate  cruised  near  the  shores  of  New- 
foundland, Nova  Stiotia,  Massachusetts,  and  HhcHle  Island.  A  German 
sailor  of  his  crew  was  delighted  with  the  wild  graiMjs  of  the  New  En- 
gland coast,  which  reminded  him  of  his  native  land.  If  the  Northmen 
made  settlements  in  America,  they  did  not  keep  up  communication 
with  Euroi>e,  so  that  all  record  of  them  is  lost. 

4.  When  a  child  of  four  years,  Alfred  was  taken  by  his  father,  King 
Ethelwolf,  on  a  pilgrimage  to  Ilomo;  and,  doubtless,  during  their  long 
stay,  his  tvctlve  mliul  recelvetl  many  Impressions  which  Influenced  his 
later  life.  Though  so  long  the  prey  of  conquerors,  lUiIy  still  surpassed 
all  western  Euroi>e  in  learning  and  clyilization.  On  his  homeward 
journey,  Ethelwolf  visited  the  court  of  the  French  king,  Charles  the 
Bidd,  where— his  own  queen  having  died  many  years  before— he  married 
the  princess  Judith.     Among  her  bridal  gifts  was  a  volume  of  old  En- 

?;llsh  poems,  which  .she  used  to  read  to  her  step-sons,  and  one  day  of- 
fered It  JUS  a  i)rlze  to  the  one  who  would  first  learn  to  read.  Alfred, 
though  the  youngest,  was  the  one  who  gained  the  reward;  and  good 
books  were  ever  afterwanl  the  dearest  ddlght  of  his  life. 

Four  of  Alfred's  brothers  wore  the  English  crown  before  he  was  him- 
self called  from  his  beloved  studies  to  the  heavy  burdens  of  kingship. 
The  whole  country  north  of  the  Thames  wa.s  now  in  the  possession 
of  the  Dane.s.  who  reigned  at  York;  and,  after  seven  years'  hard  fight- 
ing, they  had  so  nearly  conquered  the  .south  country,  that  Alfred  was 
compelled  to  hide  him.sclf  among  the  mai-shy  foresLs  of  Somersetshire. 
But  lie  established  a  camp  on  an  island  of  llrm  ground  in  the  midst  of 
a  bog;  and,  collecting  some  of  his  loyal  subjects,  often  surprised  the 
enemy  by  a  night  attack,  while  bringing  in  supplies  of  food.  When  he 
was  ready  for  a  more  decisive  battle,  he  first  put  on  the  disguise  of  a 
harper,' and,  entering  the  camp  of  Guthrun  at  Ethandune,  lnforme<l 
him-self  thoroughly  of  the  numlxji's  and  condition  of  the  Danes.  He 
found  them  lazy  and  negligent,  tlespising  the  English  and  fearing  no 
attack.  Then,  swiftly  and  secretly  mustering  his  forces,  he  gained  a  com- 
plete and  decisive  victory.  Guthrun  acknowledged  the  over-lordshlpof 
Alfretl,  and  agreed  to  content  himself  with  the  lands  assigned  hina  in 
the  northern  and  eastern  part  of  England.  His  followers  renounced 
iheir  heathen  worship  and  their  marauding  habits,  and  became  as  or- 
derly as  the  German  invaders  had  become  four  centuries  before. 

Alfred  improved  the  years  of  peace  which  followed,  by  providing  for 
the  defense  and  civilization  of  his  people.  He  rebuilt  cities  that  the 
Danes  had  destroyed,  and  guarded  his  coasts  by  a  powerful  fleet,  and 
the  land  by  a  regularly  trained  militia.     He  founded  st^hools,  and  re- 

aulred  all  owners  of  land  to  send  their  sons  thither  for  instruction, 
•ne  of  these  was  at  Oxford,  and  Alfred  is  hence  calle<l  the  founder  of 
the  university.  Learned  men  were  employed  in  translating  Greek  and 
Latin  lx)oks,  and  foreign  artisans  introduced  useful  manufactures  into 
the  country. 

Even  the  king  found  time,  in  tlie  midst  of  his  many  cares,  to  write 
or  translate  .several  books  for  the  benefit  of  his  j^eople.  Among  bis 
ti-anslations  were  Orosius's  History  of  the  World,  and  Bo<Hhius's  Con- 
solations of  Philosophy,  but  most  valuable  of  all,  tlie  Psalms  and  other 
portions  of  the  Scriptures. 

So  great  improvements  were  made  by  Alfre<l  in  the  administration 
of  justice,  that  he  is  sometimes  named  as  the  author  of  trial  by 
jury,  and  some  other  safeguaixls  of  personal  rights.  He  certainly  did 
reorganize  and  enforce  all  that  was  best  in  the  old  German  customs, 
from  which  our  later  institutions  have  l>een  developed.  This  great  king 
and  lawgiver  died  in  A.  D.  }K)1,  after  a  reign  of  thirty  years.  His  moral 
<ireatness  was  shown  in  the  sacrifice  of  his  pei-soiial  tj\stes  for  the  gtMKl 
of  his  kingdom,  and  historians  rank  him  with  Washlngt<jn  and  Wllnam 
the  Silent  (gg  514-521)  as  one  of  the  three  highest  examples  of  human 
character. 


202  MEDIMVAL  HISTORY. 


5.  William  beoame  Duke  of  Normandy  at  the  age  of  ten  years  in 
1035,  his  father,  Duke  Robert,  having  died  in  Asia  Minor  on  his  return 
from  a  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Land.    Though  so  young,  William  soon 

firoved  his  energy  and  courage  by  putting  down  a  rebellion  of  his  barons, 
t  was  six  years  after  William's  accession  in  Normandy,  wlien  his  cousin 
Edward— twenty-one  years  his  senior— who  liad  been  a  resident  at  the 
Norman  court  during  the  Danish  occupation  of  liis  own  land— was  called 
to  the  throne  of  his  ancestors.  Subsequently,  William  paid  Edward  a 
visit  in  England,  where  he  doubtless  gained  some  influence  among  the 
nobles;  but  if  there  is  any  truth  in  the  story  that  he  received  a  promise 
of  the  crown  from  his  cousin,  the  latter  must  have  used  words  which 
he  had  neither  the  right  nor  the  power  to  make  good.  The  English 
crown  could  only  be  conferred  by  a  free  vote  of  the  notables  or  w^ise 
men;  and  when  the  time  came,  they  bestowed  it  upon  Harold,  son  of 
the  powerful  Earl  Godwin,  and  brother-in-law  of  Edward.  A  year  be- 
fore, Harold  had  been  shipwrecked  upon  the  Norman  coast,  and,  though 
treated  with  courtesy,  w^as  really  the  prisoner  of  the  Duke,  who  resolved 
to  extort  the  utmost  possible  advantage  from  his  misfortune.  *  Before  a 
full  assembly  of  the  Norman  barons,  Harold  was  required  to  do  hom- 
age (^317)  to  Duke  William  as  heir-apparent  to  the  English  throne. 
Kneeling  down,  Harold  placed  his  hands  between  those  of  the  duke, 
and  repeated  the  solemn  form  by  which  he  acknowledged  the  duke  as 
his  lord,  and  promised  to  him  fealty  and  true  service.  But  William  ex- 
acted more.  He  had  caused  all  the  bones  and  relics  of  saints,  that  were 
preserved  in  the  Norman  monasteries  and  churches,  to  be  collected  into 
a  chest,  which  was  placed  In  the  council-room,  covered  over  with  a 
cloth  of  gold.  On  the  chest  of  relics,  which  were  thus  concealed,  was 
laid  a  missal.  The  duke  then  solemnly  addressed  his  titular  guest  and 
real  captive,  and  said  to  him:  "Harold,  1  require  thee,  before  this  noble 
assembly,  to  confirm  by  oath  the  promises  which  thou  hast  made  me, 
to  assist  me  in  obtaining  the  crown  of  England  after  King  Edward's 
death."  .  .  .  "Harold,  taken  by  surprise,  and  not  able  to  deny  his 
former  words,  approached  the  missal,  and  laid  his  hand  on  it,  not  know- 
ing that  the  chest  of  relics  was  beneath.  The  old  Norman  chronicler 
who  describes  the  scene  most  minutely,  says,  when  Harold  placed  his 
hand  on  it,  the  hand  trembled  and  the  flesh  quivered  ;  but  he  swore.  .  . 
to  deliver  up  England  to  the  duke,  and  thereunto  to  do  all  in  his  power 
according  to  his  might  and  wit,  after  the  death  of  Edward,  if  he  him- 
self should  live.  Many  cried  'God  grant  it! '  and  when  Harold  rose  from 
his  knees,  the  duke  took  off  the  pall  that  had  covered  the  chest,  and 
showed  Harold  upon  what  holy  relics  he  had  sworn;  and  Harold  was 
much  alarmed  at  the  sight."—  Creasy,  Fifteen  Decisive  Battles  of  the  World. 
The  same  day,  Jan.  5,  1066,  which  witnessed  the  burial  of  King  Ed- 
ward, the  Confessor,  in  Westminster  Abbey,  saw  the  coronation  of  Har- 
old in  the  same  building.  Tradition  says  that  from  his  death-bed,  the 
king  stretched  out  his  arms  to  the  earl  with  the  words:  "To  thee,  Har- 
old, my  brother,  I  commend  my  people."  Within  eight  months  the 
new  king  had  to  withstand  two  formidable  attacks  from  the  North 
and  the  South.  Harold  Hardrada,  bravest  and  strongest  of  the  Norwe- 
gian kings,  claimed  England,  as  representative  of  Knut  (g  329),  and  Tos- 
tig,  an  unworthy  brother  of  the  English  Harold,  treacherously  espoused 
his  cause.  The  Saxon  king  met  and  defeated  them  in  the  battle  of 
Stamford  Bridge,  near  York— a  battle  so  obstinately  fought  that  all  the 
flower  of  the  Norwegian  nobility  perished  with  their  king,  and  Norway 
continued  for  a  quarter  of  a  century  to  be  exhausted  and  weak.  Har- 
old's losses  were  also  great;  and,  while  he  was  thus  absent  In  the  North, 
the  duke  of  Normandy  effected  a  landing  in  the  South,  with  the  results 
already  stated. 

The  ruins  of  Battle  Abbey  at  this  hour  attest  the  place  where  Har- 
old's army  was  posted,  and  the  high  altar  stood  on  the  very  spot  where 
Harold's  own  standard  was  planted  during  the  fight. 


PART  II.— Thk  Middle  Ages. 


CHAPTER   VI. 

THE   CRUSADES. 

I' HE  Saracen  Empire  in  Asia  was 
now  in  decline,  and  all  its  real 
power  had  fallen  into  the  hands 
of  the  Turks,'  a  fierce  Tartar  tribe, 
whose  dominion,  under  Malek 
Shah,  extended  from  Arabia  to 
the  borders  of  China.  In  A.  D. 
1073  they  conquered  Jerusalem,  2 
and  put  an  end  to  the  indulgence 
which  Christian  pilgrims  had  en- 
joyed under  the  caliphs.  Multi- 
tudes, returning  to  Europe,  told 
stories  of  cruel  outrages  inflicted 
by  the  barbarians;  and  the  rage 
and  grief  excited  by  these  stories  came  to  their  height 
when  Peter  the  Hermit,  a  French  monk,  who  had  been 
in  the  East,  traveled  through  Italy  and  France,  with  the 
approval  of  Pope  Urban  II.,  setting  forth  his  plan  for 
wresting  the  holy  places  from  the  infidel.  All 
Europe  was  ablaze  with  zeal.  Thousands  of 
every  rank  and  age  put  the  red  cross  on  their  shoulders, 
which  declared  their  purpose  to  die,  if  need  were,  for  the 
deliverance  of  the  Holy  Land.  Hence  the  wars  which 
followed  are  called  Crusades^  or  wars  of  the  Crossv 

(203) 


Crusader. 


A.  D.  1096. 


204  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 


341.  Not  only  soldiers,  but  old  men,  women,  and  chil- 
dren took  part  in  the  First  Crusade.  An  unnumbered  host 
of  these,  without  order,  officers,  or  plan,  set  out  in  the 
spring  of  1096  A.  D.  In  their  ignorance,  they  expected  to 
be  fed  by  miracle,  and  to  arrive  at  Jerusalem  in  a  few  days. 
Disappointed  in  both  hopes,  they  either  perished  miserably 
of  starvation  and  fatigue,  or  were  killed  in  battle  by  the 
people  whose  corn-fields  and  granaries  they  attempted  to 
rob.  The  two  divisions  led  by  Peter  the  Hermit  and  Walter 
the  Penniless,  were  attacked  by  the  Turks  near  Nice  in  Asia 
Minor,  and  a  pyramid  of  their  bones  was  the  only  monu- 
ment of  this  vanguard  of  the  crusading  hosts. 

342.  The  regular  army  of  Crusaders  moved  in  the  autumn, 
by  four  different  routes,  toward  their  rendezvous  at  Constan- 
tinople.     The   most   northerly  division    was   led   dov/n  the 

valley  of  the  Danube  by  God'frey^  of  Bouillon, 
duke  of  Lower  Lorraine ;  the  next,  across  north- 
ern Italy  by  Ray'mond  of  Toulouse,  *  the  greatest  lord  in 
southern  France;  the  third,  across  Epirus  by  Bo'emond^ 
of  Taranto,  son  of  Robert  Guiscard  (§331);  and  the  last, 
by  four  princes,  of  whom  one  was  Robert  of  Normandy, 
eldest  son  of  the  king  of  England. 

343.  The  emperor  Alex'is,  who  had  before  been  in  terror 
of  the  Turks,  was  now  equally  alarmed  by  the  numbers  and 
power  of  his  allies.  The  free  and  haughty  bearing  of  the 
Franks^ — as  all  western  Christians  were,  and  are  still, 
called  at  Constantinople  —  shocked  his  ceremonious  court; 
and  he  was  glad  to  ''speed  the  parting  guest"  across  the 
Bosporus.  He  was  rewarded  for  his  somewhat  grudging 
hospitality  by  the  town  and  fortress  of  Nice,  which  the 
Crusaders  wrested  from  the  Turks  and  restored  to  the 
Eastern  Empire. 

344.  Another  great  victory  was  gained  over  the  Turks 
at  Dorylae'um;  but  much  had  yet  to  be  suffered  before  the 
Christian    host    arrived    at    Antioch,    the    capital    of    Syria 


CAPTURE  OF  JERUSALEM.  205 

(§168).      The   Turks   had    laid   waste    the    country,    and 

filled  or  poisoned  the  wells;  so  that  nuiltitudes  died  on  the 

march,  of  hunger  and   thirst.     Antioch   withstood   a  siege 

of  seven  months;   and  when   it  was  taken,   the   Christians 

were  besieged  in  turn  by  a  fresh  army  of  200,000  Turks, 

while   a  violent   i)laefue   carried   off   100,000   of 

tr  ,1  •  A.  D.  1098. 

their   own    forces.     Nevertheless,  a  victory  was 

gained,  which  opened  the  way  to  Jerusalem;   but  it  was  a 

pitiful   remnant   of  the   gallant   armies,  which,  three   years 

before,  had  assumed  the  Cross,  that  now  arrived,  with  tears 

and  shouts  of  joy,  before  the  Holy  City. 

345.  This  was  again  in  the  possession  of  the  Saracens 
from  Egypt,  who  had  wrested  it  from  the  Turks;  but  a 
forty  days'  siege  —  during  which   the   assailants 

suffered    agonies    of    thirst    in    the    midsummer  '  ^°^' 

heat  —  ended  in  its  capture  by  the  Christians.  By  the 
votes  of  his  brave  comrades,  Duke  Godfrey  was  chosen  to 
be  the  first  Christian  king  of  Jerusalem.  He  refused  to 
wear  a  golden  crown  in  the  city  where  his  Master  had 
worn  the  crown  of  thorns;  but  he  consented  to  be  styled 
Guardian  of  Jerusalem  and  the  Holy  Sepulcher.  Godfrey 
survived  his  consecration  to  this  office  only  one  year,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Baldwin. 

346.  By  successive  conquests,  the  Christian  kingdom  of 
Jerusalem^  was  extended  eastward  to  the  Euphrates,  and 
southward  to  the  borders  of  Egypt.  The  French  language, 
customs,  and  laws  prevailed  throughout  the  lands  once 
ruled  by  David  and  Solomon,  which  were  parceled  out 
into  four  great  feudal  baronies.  The  first  of  the  three 
famous  Orders  of  Chivalry,  which  added  monkish  vows  to 
those  of  the  knight,  had  its  origin  in  the  First  Crusade. 
This  was  the  Order  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  or  the 
"Knights  Hospitallers."  They  were  followed,  in  1117,  by 
the  ''Templars,"  who  undertook  the  defense  of  pilgrims,  and, 
in  1 191,  by  the  "Teutonic"  Order.     §§360,361,460,560. 


2o6  MEDIAEVAL   HISTORY. 

347.  The  Second  Crusade  was  preached  by  St.  Bernard'f 
abbot  of  Clairvaiix  —  the  greatest  mind  in  Christendom  in 

his    time  —  and  was   led   by  two    great   mon- 
archs,    the    emperor    Conrad    III.'^  and    king 

Louis  VII.   of  France.     Nevertheless,  it  ended  in  nothing 

but  disaster  and  disgrace, 

348.  Sal'adin,^'^  the  prince  of  Moslem  warriors  for  valor, 
courtesy,  and  gentleness  of  soul,  now  became  sultan  of 
Syria   and   Egypt.     In  a  great  battle   near   Lake   Tiberias 

he   broke   the   power    of  the    Christians,  and 
■  "  ^"  captured   their   king,  Guy  of   Lusignan,  with 

the  grandmaster  of  the  Templars,  and  many  other  nobles. 
Most  of  the  important  towns  in  Syria — and,  last  of  all, 
Jerusalem — fell  into  his  hands.  This  calamity  aroused  all 
Europe.  The  great  emperor,  Frederic  Barbaros'sa,  with 
his  son  and  eighty-eight  German  princes,  assumed  the 
Cross,  and  so  did  the  kings  Philip  Augustus  of  France 
and  Richard^i  the  Lion-Hearted  of  England.     A.  D.  11 89. 

349.  The  emperor  never  saw  Jerusalem,  for  he  was 
drowned  in  a  little  river  in  Asia  Minor.  All  the  Christian 
forces  in  Syria  were  mustered  for  the  siege  of  Acre,  when 

the  arrival  of  the  French  and  English  kings 
'  "^^'  effected  its  capture.     The  prodigious  strength 

and  valor  of  Richard  were  the  admiration  of  the  Christians, 
and  the  terror  of  the  Saracens.  But  Philip  was  jealous, 
and,  feigning  illness,  he  returned  home.  Richard  took  and 
re-fortified  Jaffa,  Ascalon,  and  Gaza,  and,  fighting  every 
step  of  the  way,  advanced  within  sight  of  Jerusalem.  But 
his  allies  refused  to  join  him  in  besieging  it,  and  he 
withdrew  in  grief  and  shame,  covering  his  face  with  his 
shield. 

350.  News  now  came  that  King  Philip  was  plotting  with 
Richard's  brother  John  for  a  partition  of  his  dominions. 
John  was  to  have  England,  while  Philip  seized  all  the  fiefs 
in  France  for  which  Richard  was  his  vassal  (§318).     These 


FOURTH  AND  FIFTH  CKUSADFS.  207 


were  the  two  great  duchies  of  Normandy  and  Aquitaine, 
with  the  counties  of  Maine,  Anjou,  Poitou,  and  Touraine. 
After  making  an  honorable  truce  with  Saladin,  Richard 
embarked  for  home;  but  he  was  shipwrecked  in  the  Adri- 
atic, and  landing  at  Zara,  tried  to  make  the  journey  across 
Europe  in  the  disguise  of  a  pilgrim.  He  was  recognized, 
seized,  and  imprisoned,  by  his  bitterest  enemy,  the  duke 
of  Austria,  whom  he  had  insulted  after  the  capture  of 
Gaza.  At  length,  being  summoned  to  plead  his  cause 
before  the  Diet  of  the  Western  Empire  (§312),  Richard  was 
permitted  to  be  ransomed  and  restored  to  his  kingdom. 

351.  A  Fourth  Crusade  was  proclaimed,  A.  D.  1200,  by 
Pope  Innocent  III.  The  overland  route  had  now  been 
found  too  dangerous,  and  the  French  barons  made  a  treaty 
with  the  Venetian  Republic,  then  the  greatest  maritime 
power  in  Europe,  to  transport  their  armies,  by  sea,  to  the 
Holy  Land.  But  first  they  undertook  the  cause  of  Isaac 
Angelus,  emperor  of  the  East,  who  had  been  dethroned, 
imprisoned,  and  deprived  of  his  sight  by  an  unnatural 
brother.  By  two  attacks  they  captured  Constantinople, 
and  restored  the  blind  old  emperor  to  his  throne;  but  a 
quarrel  afterward  broke  out  between  the  Greeks  and  the 
Franks,  which  ended  in  a  second  capture  of  the 

city,  and   the   foundation  of  the  Latin  Empire  "  "°'*' 

of  the  East.  Most  of  the  crusaders  never  reached  the 
Holy  Land  at  all.     The  Latin  Empire  lasted  till  1261. 

352.  The  Fifth  Crusade  was  marked  by  the  siege  and 
capture  of  Damietta  in  Egypt,  though  the  Christian  forces 
were  afterwards  overwhelmed  with  calamities  by  an  over- 
flow of  the  Nile.  The  emperor  Frederic  II.  was  now 
engaged  in  a  fierce  contention  with  the  Pope,  who 
had  first  excommunicated  him  for  delaying  to  join  the 
Crusade,  and  again,  for  presuming  to  go  while  under  cen- 
sure. His  presence  in  the  Holy  Land,  A.  D.  1229,  how- 
ever, secured  the  surrender  of  Jerusalem,  Jaffa,  Bethlehem, 


2o8  MEDIAEVAL  HISTORY. 

and  Nazareth  to  the  Christians,  and  he  assumed  the  crown 
of  Jerusalem  in  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulcher. 

353.  The  Sixth  Crusade  was  led  by  the  king  of  Navarre, 
and  by  the  English  Prince  Richard,  a  nephew  of  the 
Lion-hearted.  By  peaceful  agreement,  the  greater  part  of 
Palestine  was  surrendered  to  the  Christians,  and  the  walls 
of  Jerusalem  were  rebuilt.  Christians  and  Saracens  were 
now  compelled  to  join  their  forces  against  a  pagan  horde 
of   Tartars,   who    had    been    expelled    from    Korasmia    by 

Genghis  Khan,  and  who,  sweeping  over  Pales- 
tine, captured  Jerusalem,  and  murdered  a  vast 
multitude  of  its  people.  A  two  days'  battle  ended  in  the 
almost  complete  extermination  of  the  Syrian  hosts.  But 
Bar'bacan,  the  Tartar  chief,  was  soon  slain,  and  western 
Asia  breathed  again. 

354.  The   Seventh   Crusade  was   led   by  the   good   king 

Louis  IX.  of  France.  He  captured  Damietta, 
but  afterwards,  overwhelmed  with  disasters  and 
himself  a  prisoner,  he  had  to  surrender  it  for  his  ransom. 
He  then  spent  four  years  in  the  Holy  Land,  where  he 
repaired  the  fortifications  of  Acre,  and  ransomed  many 
thousands  of  Christian  captives.     He  never  saw  Jerusalem. 

355.  The  Eighth  Crusade  was  occasioned  by  the  fall  of 
Antioch;  17,000  of  its  people  being  slain,  and  100,000 
carried  away  as  slaves,  by  an  army  of  Korasmian  Turks, 
called  Mamelukes,  from  Egypt.  King  Louis  heartily  engaged 
in  it,  but  he  died  of  the  plague,  in  Tunis,  before  he  could 

reach  Palestine.     Prince  Edward,  the  future  king 

A.   D.   1272.  .  . 

of   England,  gained  a   victory  over   the  Turks, 
and  secured  a  favorable  truce  of  ten  years. 

356.  The  last  general  effort  for  the  deliverance  of  the 
Holy  Land  is  not  even  numbered  by  most  historians 
among  the  Crusades,  though  the  emperors  of  the  East  and 
West  were  enrolled  in  it.  Acre  was  the  only  remain^ 
ing   possession  of  the   Christians  in  the    East,  and   it  was 


MAP  No.  VIII. 


THE  CRUSADES. 


First,  led  by  Godfrey  of  Bouillon  and  others,    A.  D-  1096. 

.     1147. 


Second, 


the  Emperor  Conrad  III.  and 
King  Louis  VII.  of  France    . 

Third,  **  Emperor  Frederic  I.  of  Rome, 
Philip  II.  of  France,  and 
Richard  I.  of  England  .         .     1189. 

Fourth  ends  in  capture  of  Constantinople  by 

Venetians  and  French  .         .         ,     1204. 

Fifth,  led  by  Emperor  Frederic  II.         .         .         .     1228. 

Sixth,       "     Theobald    I.    of   Navarre   and 

Richard  of  Cornwall     .         .  1238. 

Seventh,  **      King  Louis  IX.  of  France  .         .     1248. 

Eighth,    "         *'         "       *'     *'       "        and 

Prince  Edward  of  England    .  1270. 

Note. — The  Crusades  are  differently  numbered  by  historians. 
Some  omit  the  Sixth  above  mentioned,  and  name  as  the  Fifth 
an  ineffectual  enterprise  led  by  Andrew  of  Hungary,  in  12 17. 


THE  HOLY  X.AND 

with  its  Divisions 
at  the 

Time  of  the  Crusades. 


M         H.  IT.  Vail,  del. 


RESULTS  OF  THE  CRUSADES,  209 

besieged  by  a  great  army  of  200,000  Mamelukes.  The 
defense  was  long  and  obstinate,  but  at  last  tlic  city  fell, 
and  all  Palestine  was  overrun  by  the  Turks. 

357.  Although  the  Crusaders  had  failed  of  the  end  they 
sought,  they  had  gained  others  of  far  more  value.  Their 
minds  were  enlarged  by  contact  with  customs  diflerent 
from,  and  usually  superior  to,  their  own.  Compared  with 
the  art,  learning,  and  refined  society  of  Constantinople,  the 
Franks  were  barbarians.  Even  from  the  Saracens,  whom 
they  had  pictured  as  inhuman  monsters,  they  had  much 
to  learn.  They  were  amazed  to  find  the  ''infidel  dogs" 
better  behaved  than  themselves;  but  they  could  not  fail 
to  admire  the  delicate  generosity  of  Saladin,  who  sent 
snow  from  Lebanon  to  Richard  in  sickness,  and  presented 
him  with  two  beautiful  Arabian  horses  when  Richard's  own 
had  been  killed  in  battle. 

358.  Several  peculiar  products  of  Asia — sugar,  the  silk 
worm,  and  fine  wheat,  for  example — were  first  brought  into 
Europe  by  Crusaders,  and  a  brisk  trade  now  sprang  up 
between  the  East  and  the  West.  Venetian  merchants  visited 
the  great  cities  of  China,  and  it  is  probable  that  they  found 
there  two  inventions,  gunpowder  and  printing,  which  were 
to  change  the  whole  current  of  European  life. 

359.  The  immediate  results  in  the  West  were  not  less 
great.  Europe  was  divided,  as  we  have  seen,  into  a  mul- 
titude of  duchies  and  counties,  whose  holders  were  perpet- 
ually making  war  upon  each  other.  Now  it  was  good  for 
those  quarrelsome  chiefs  to  be  moved  for  once  by  a  com- 
mon feeling,  the  only  feeling  that  could  move  kings  and 
vassals,  priests  and  peasants,  alike.  The  power  of  the 
Church  was  for  a  time  supreme;  the  age  of  chivalry 
began;  the  authority  of  the  leading  sovereigns  became 
centralized  and  better  established;  Venice  and  Genoa 
secured  an  immense  increase  of  trade.  The  lands  which 
knights  and  barons  had  sold  to  pay  the  expenses  of  their 

Hist.— 14. 


2IO  MEDL^VAL   HISTORY. 

crusades,  were  bought  in  many  cases  by  the  Church,  but 
in  others  by  thrifty  citizens,  and  thus  a  middle  class  sprang 
up  between  nobles  and  peasants. 

360.  The  three  Orders  of  Chivalry,  which  had  arisen 
from  the  Crusades,  were  now  rich  and  powerful.  The 
Templars,  having  no  fit  use  either  for  their  vast  wealth 
or  their  knightly  energies,  became  haughty,  luxurious,  and 
dangerous  to  the  governments  under  which  they  lived. 
Their  order  was  dissolved  about  40  years  after  the  last 
Crusade,  and  their  lands  were  given  to  the  Knights  of 
St.  John.     See  §404,   and  note,   p.    240. 

361.  These,  in  their  successive  stations  at  Cyprus, 
Rhodes,  and  Malta,  kept  up  a  rigorous  discipline,  and 
bravely  defended  southern  Europe  from  the  Turks.  The 
Teutonic  Knights  had  yet  harder  work  to  do.  The  Prus- 
sians, and  several  other  tribes  near  the  Baltic,  were  still 
heathen,  and  a  century  and  a  half  of  fierce  conflict  pre- 
ceded the  establishment  of  Christianity  in  the  northern 
wilds.  The  industry  of  the  brotherhood  meanwhile  turned 
the  salt  marshes  into  fertile  fields  by  means  of  dykes  and 
drainage;  and  Marienburg,  their  fortress  and  capital,  be- 
came a  center  of  civilizing  influences  for  all  that  pagan 
region. 

Trace,  on  Maps  8  and  13,  the  general  course  of  Crusaders  in  1096 
A.  D.  Point  out  their  first  conquest ;  Antioch,  Jerusalem,  Acre, 
Jaffa,  Ascalon,  Gaza,  Damietta.  Lake  Tiberias,  Boundaries  of  the 
Christian  Kingdom  of  Jerusalem.  Stations  of  the  Knights  of  St. 
John.     Territory  of  the  Teutonic  Knights. 

Read  Hallam's  "Middle  Ages,"  Ch.  I,  Part  I,  and  Ch.  VI;  Mill's 
History  of  the  Crusades ;  Michelet's  History  of  France ;  Morrison's 
Life  and  Times  of  St.  Bernard ;  Milman's  Latin  Christianity,  Book 
VI.;  Heeren's  Essay  on  the  History  of  the  Crusades;  and  Finlay's 
History  of  the  Byzantine  and  Greek  Empire.  Rev.  James  White's 
History  of  France,  in  one  volume,  will  be  found  very  useful  by  those 
who  lack  time  or  opportunity  to  consult  larger  works. 


NOTES,  211 


NOTES. 

1.  Thoso  wtMV  fill'  St'liukiim  Turks,  s(»  calUd  fruin  Scljuk.  their  chief, 
wlio,  fxpt'lltMl  from  Turkestan  by  the  rei«i»iii«  prince,  ha<i  settU'd  with 
all  histril)e  in  Hokiiara,  and  liad  cniitraced  tlie  religion  (»f  Molianinied. 
FuIllnK  in  battle  when  more  than  a  hundred  yoarN  old,  Seljuk  wius 
succeeded  by  his  grandson,  Togrul  Heg,  the  real  founder  of  the  dyniiHty. 
He  overran  most  of  the  realm  of  the  Al)l)aKsides,  and  even  the  caliph  be- 
came his  nrisoner,  but  was  treated  with  perfect  respect,  and  uppointe<l 
Togrul  to  be  his  lieutenant.  From  this  time  the  caliphs  were  little  more 
than  the  spiritual  heads  of  Islam,  the  militairy  nower  being  committe<l 
to  the  Turkish  chiefs.  Togrul  was  succeeded  In  lOtM  by  his  nephew,  Alp- 
Arslan  (the  Strong  Lion),  of  whose  justice  and  clemency  wonderful 
stories  are  told.  Under  Alp-.\rslan  and  his  son,  Malek  Shah,  the  Sel- 
Jukian  empire  rea\ched  It.s  greatest  extent  and  power,  anil  soon  began 
to  decline.  For  the  character  of  the  Seljukians  in  general,  see  note  2, 
below.  The  Ottoman  Turks,  who  still  hold  their  ground  in  western 
Asia,  were  a  later  arrival.    See  §378. 

2.  Since  its  capture  by  Titus  (|251),  Jerusalem  had  undergone  many 
changes.  Rebuilt  by  Hadrian  (g2.)4)  iw  a  Roman  city,  it  l>ecame,  under 
Constivntine  (|'2b7),  the  gn>at  center  of  Christian  pilgrimages.  Helena, 
the  mother  of  Constantino,  is  said  to  have  discovered  the  real  sepulcher 
and  cross  of  Christ  on  this  sacred  ground,  In  A.  1).  .SiT);  and  she  built 
the  two  churchs  of  the  Nativity  and  the  Holy  Sepulcher,  whose  remains 
still  exist.  In  61  lor  (514,  Jerusalem  was  captured  by  Chosroes,  king  of 
Persia.  It  was  re-occuplod  by  Heracllus,  A.  D.  (529,  but  was  conquered 
by  the  caliph  Omar,  A.  D.  637,  and  continued  under  Saracen  rule  more 
than  four  centuries. 

The  Saracens  favored  Christian  pilgrimages,  which  resembled  their 
own  religious  usjige:  and,  they  were  not  only  enriched  by  the  taxes 
imposed  upon  pilgrims,  but  shared  with  Christian  merchants  in  the* 
profits  of  tlie  great  Easier  fairs,  which  drew  fleets  of  vessels  from  the 
Mediterranean  ports,  (Jenoa,  Pisa,  and  Amalfl. 

After  the  year  KKHt  liad  pa.ssed  (ii3.'?9),  and  a  new  Christian  age  had  be- 
gun, the  tide  of  pilgrimage  set  eastward  with  greater  energv  than  ever. 

"Now,  however,"  says  Dean  Mllraan,  "the  splendid,  polished,  and 
more  tolerant  Mohammedanism  of  the  earlier  caliphs  had  sunk  before 
the  savage  yet  no  less  warlike  Turks.  This  race  of  the  Mongol  stock 
had  embi-aced  all  that  was  enterprising,  barbarous,  and  aggressive,  re- 

iecting  all  that  was  humane,  or  tending  to  a  higher  civilization,  In 
lohammedanism.  They  were  more  fanatic  Islamites  than  the  follow- 
ers of  the  prophet,  than  the  prophet  himself.  The  Seljukians  became 
masters  of  Jerusalem;  and,  from  that  time,  the  Christians  of  Palestine, 
from  tributary  subjects,  became  despised  slaves;  the  pilgrims,  from  re- 
spected guests.  Intruders,  whose  hateful  presence  polluted  the  atraos- 
pnere  of  pure  Islamism.  Year  after  year  came  back  the  few  survivors 
of  a  long  train  of  pilgrims,  no  longer  radiant  with  pious  pride  at  the 
accomplishment  of  their  holy  purpose,  rich  in  precious  relics,  or  even 
the  more  costly  treasures  of  the  East;  but,  stealing  home,  famished, 
wounded,  mutilated,  with  lamentable  tales  of  their  own  sufTerings  and 
of  those  who  had  died  of  the  ill-usage  of  the  barbarous  unbelievers. 

At  length,  the  afflictions  of  the  Christians  found  a  voice  which  woke 
indignant  Europe;  an  apostle  who  could  rouse  warlike  I^tin  Christen- 
dom to  encounter  with  equal  fanaticism  this  new  outburst  of  the  fanat- 
icism of  Islam.  This  was  the  mission  of  the  hermit,  Peter."— Zycrfm  Chris- 
tianUy,  IV.,  Ch.  VI.  ' 

3.  Godfrey  was  a  younger  son  of  Count  Eustace,  of  Bologne,  but 
early  distinguished  himself  In  the  armies  of  the  Emperor  Henry  IV., 
who  rewarded  him  with  the  duchy  of  Bouillon,  of  which  Setlan  Is  the 
citpltal.  His  courage  and  genius  for  command  were  equaled  by  the 
patience  and  generosity   which  enabled  him  to  pacify  the  confUctlng 

{)assions  of  his  comrades  in  arms.    Tasso  has  made  Godfrey  the  hero  of 
lis  poem,  Jerimalein  Delivered. 

4.  Count  Raymond  IV.,  of  Toulouse,  conquered  for  himself  fi-om 
the  Mohammetlans  the  district  of  Triix>li,  in  Syria,  and  held  it  as  a 
vassal  1^316)  of  the  king  of  Jerusalem. 


212  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 


5.  Boemond  was  an  able  and  ambitious  prince,  discontented  with 
his  secondary  rank,  and  aspiring  to  an  imperial  crown,  either  in  the 
East  or  West,  perhaps  both.  In  his  father's  life-time  he  had  wrested 
Illyria,  Macedonia,  and  Greece  from  the  P^astern  Empire,  but  these 
provinces  had  been  lost.  When  Urban  II.  look  counsel  with  him,  first 
of  all  the  western  princes,  about  the  feasibility  of  a  crusade,  he  warmly 
furtliered  the  scheme,  hoping  to  regain  the  eastern  provinces,  or  at  least 
to  find  exercise  for  his  military  talents  in  some  profitable  enterprise. 
He  was  the  leader  in  the  siege  of  Antioch,  and  received  that  city,  with 
a  large  territory,  as  an  independent  principality. 

6.  The  Princess  Anna  Commena,  daughter  of  Alexis,  was  a  girl  of 
fifteen  years  at  tiie  time  of  the  First  Crusade.  In  her  Alexiad,  written 
thirty  years  later  in  the  seclusion  of  a  convent,  she  has  given  a  lively 
account  of  the  manners  ol  the  Frankish  chiefs,  which  sJiocked  the  re- 
fined tastes  of  the  Greeks.  One  of  the  western  counts  even  seated  him- 
self on  the  imperial  throne,  at  the  very  time  when  his  companions  in 
arms  were  taking  their  oath  of  obedience  to  Alexis.  Being  admonished 
of  his  rudeness,  he  still  continued  to  mutter  between  his  teeth,  while 
staring  fixedly  at  the  emperor:  "What  rustic  fellow  is  this,  to  be  seated 
alone,  while  such  leaders  stand  around  him ! " 

Alexis  (1080-1118)  was  the  first  emperor  of  his  family— the  Comneni. 

7.  The  Kingdom  of  Jerusalem  lasted  88  years,  being  overthrown  by 
Saladin  in  1187  (g  348). 

8.  Bernard  was  born  in  Burgundy,  in  1091,  of  noble  and  pious  parents. 
At  22  years  of  age  he  quitted  tlie  pleasures  of  the  world,  and,  witli  thirty 
young  companions,  including  his  five  brothers,  entered  the  convent  of 
Citeaux.  Two  years  later,  he  was  made  abbot  of  Clairvaux.  The  new 
abbey  was  only  a  rude  wooden  structure,  erected  by  Bernard  and  his 
twelve  monks  with  their  own  hands;  but,  from  this  humble  dwelling 
went  forth  a  power  which  was  felt  in  all  the  courts  of  Europe.  After 
Edessji  had  been  captured  by  the  Mussulmans  in  1145,  Bernard  roused 
the  French  and  German  people  to  a  second  Crusade,  and,  by  his  per- 
sonal appeals,  overcame  the  extreme  reluctance  of  the  Emperor  Conrad 
to  engage  in  it  in  person.  The  power  of  genius,  eloquence,  and  energy 
of  will  was  heightened  in  Bernard  by  a  supreme  and  unselfish  devotion 
to  what  he  considered  right.    He  died  in  1153. 

9.  Conrad  III.  was  a  son  of  Frederic  of  Hohenstaufen,  and  uncle 
of  Frederic  Barbarossa.  It  was  in  the  battle  of  Weinsberg,  between 
Conrad  and  his  rival,  Henry  the  Proud  of  Saxony,  that  the  war  cries 
of  "Welf  and  "Weiblingen"  —  more  familiar  to  us  in  their  Italian 
equivalents,  Guelf  and  Ghibelline  (§  Wi)  were  first  heard.  The  Guelfs 
were  dukes  of  Bavaria;  tlie  Hohenstaufen,  dukes  of  Franconia,  Suabia, 
and  Saxony. 

After  losing  thousands  of  his  men  in  the  march  through  Asia  Minor— 
mainly  through  the  treachery  of  his  Greek  guides— Conrad  joined  his 
forces  with  those  of  King  Louis  of  France,  in  laying  siege  to  Damascus. 
It  proved  a  miserable  failure,  owing  to  the  jealousy  of  the  Christian 
barons  of  Palestine,  and  the  two  sovereigns  returned  to  their  western 
dominions  more  like  fugitives  than  mighty  princes. 

10.  Saladin  was  a  Kurd  by  birth,  and  had  been  vizier  to  Noureddin, 
sultan  of  Damascus,  who  dethroned  the  Fatimite  (note,  p.  182)  caliph  at 
Cairo,  and  added  Egypt  to  his  dominion.  On  Noureddin's  death,  Saladin 
made  himself  sultan  of  all  his  dominions.  Even  his  enemies  admired 
Saladin's  perfect  humanity  toward  his  prisoners,  and  high-minded  gen- 
erosity toward  his  adversaries  in  arms.  His  character  is  depicted  in 
doubtless  exaggerated  colors  in  Scott's  Talisman,  and  in  Lessing's  poem, 
Nathan  the  Wise. 

11.  See  Chapter  IX.  for  an  account  of  the  faiiiily  to  which  Richard 
belonged.  He  is  brilliantly  pictured  in  Scott's  romances,  Ivanhoe  and 
The  Talisman.  His  real  character  is  thus  summed  up  by  Hume:  "Of  an 
impetuous  and  veliement  spirit,  he  was  distinguished  by  all  the  good 
as  well  as  the  bad  qualities  incident  to  that  character;  he  was  open, 
frank,  generous,  sincere,  and  brave;  he  was  revengeful,  domineering, 
ambitious,  haughty,  and  cruel." 


CHAPTER  VII. 


GUELFS   AND    C.HIBELLINES.      RISE    OF   ITALIAN    AND    GERMAN    CITIES, 


Venetian   Nobleman. 


HE  two  great  powers  of  Europe, 
during  the  Middle  Ages,  were  the 
Church  and  the  Empire,  and  these, 
as  we  have  seen,  were  often  at 
deadly  strife  (§  325).  The  emi^eror 
was  the  civil  head  of  Christendom, 
as  the  pope  was  the  spiritual  head; 
and  they  often  differed  as  to  the 
boundaries  of  their  respective  juris- 
dictions. This  rivalry  probably  had 
one  advantage,  in  preventing  either 
from  becoming  absolute.  The 
haughty  will  of  the  Caesar  could 
bow  to  none  but  the  vicegerent  of 
God;  while  the  ambition  of  the  Pope  could  only  be  curbed 
by  a  power  which,  like  his  own,  was  held  to  be  of  divine 
appointment.  The  Church  had  done  good  service  in  main- 
taining order  during  the  Dark  Ages;  and,  if  it  did  not 
enlighten  the  people,  it  guarded  the  treasures  of  ancient 
learning  for  the  benefit  of  later  times. 

363.  The  Guelfs  and  the  Hohenstaufen,  two  powerful 
German  families,  contended  for  the  imperial  crown.  The 
latter  obtained  it,  A.  D.  1138;  and  the  name  Ghibelline, 
taken  from  one  of  their  castles,  was  adopted,  by  the  ad- 
herents of  the  emperors,  to  distinguish  them  from  the 
Pope's  party,  who  more  commonly  sided  with  the  Guelfs. 
The  cities  of  Italy,  most  of  them  independent  republics, 
declared    themselves   either   Guelf  or    Ghibelline;    and   as 

(213) 


214  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 

they  were  almost  constantly  at  war,  either  among  them- 
selves or  against  the  emperor,  these  battle-cries  rang 
through   the   peninsula   for   centuries.   (See  note  9,  p.  212.) 

364.  The  great  city  of  Milan,  once  an  imperial  capital 
(§  263),  led  the  opposition  to  Frederic  I.,  the  greatest 
of  the  Hohenstaufen.  Twice  it  was  besieged  and  taken, 
and  after  the  second  capture  its  stately  walls  were  leveled 
with  the  ground.  Even  its  enemies  and  rivals  now  joined 
it  in  a  "Lombard  League,"  which  gained  a  great  victory 
over  Frederic  at  Legnano,  A.  D.  11 76.  Seven  years  later 
the  Peace  of  Constance  established  the  independence  of 
all  the  Lombard  cities.  See  §348. 

365.  By  marrying  the  heiress  of  the  last  Norman  king 
(§331),  Frederic's  son,  Henry  VL,  obtained  the  crown  of 
the  Two   Sicilies,  in  addition  to  that  of  the  Empire.     His 

son,  Frederic  IL,  was  called  Stupor  Muiidi 
(the  Amazement  of  the  World),  by  reason 
of  his  brilliant  talents.  He  enriched  his  native  Italy  by 
improved  laws,  and  by  his  liberal  patronage  of  literature 
and  commerce  (§352).  Nevertheless,  he  was  continually 
at  war  with  the  popes,  who,  at  length,  deposed  him  and 
offered  all  his  crowns  (§  324)  to  other  princes.  His  death 
was  followed  by  23  years  of  confusion,  several  rival  em- 
perors being  acknowledged  by  different  parties.  The  im- 
perial crown  was  given,  at  last,  to  Rudolph  of  HapsburgJ 
who  had  the  good  sense  to  leave  Italy  to  itself,  and  use 
his  power  against  the  turbulent  princes  and  robber-knights 
who  were  destroying  the  peace  of  Germany.  He  demol- 
ished 70  castles,  the  strongholds  of  these  marauders. 

366.  Italy  became  almost  wholly  Guelf.  The  Two  Sic- 
ilies were  bestowed  upon  Charles  of  Anjou,^  a  French 
prince,  who,  moreover,  ruled  Provence  in  right  of  his  wife, 
and  exerted  imperial  power  in  Rome  and  several  northern 
cities.  But  his  harshness  drove  the  Sicilians  to  revolt,  and 
8,000   French  were  massacred,    A.    D.    1282.     The    island 


RTRNZ!  AT  ROME,  215 

Ijecame  a  separate  kingdom,  ruled  for  a  century  and  a  half 
by  Arragonese  princes.  The  **T\vo  Sicilies"  were  reunited 
in  1435,  uttder  Alfon'so  of  Arragon.  See  §331. 

367.  The  cities  of  Lombardy  soon  lost  their  freedom 
and  submitted  \.o  podcstasy  or  tyrants,  of  whom  the  greatest 
were  the  Visconti  of  Milan.  Rome  was  filled  with  murder 
and  robbery,  especially  after  Pope  Clem'ent  V.  had  re- 
moved the  "Chair  of  St.  Peter"  to  Avignon,  in  southern 
France.     The  72  years  absence  of  the  popes 

was  known  to  writers  of  that  day  as  a  '  '  *^°^''^'^* 
"Babylonish  Captivity."  During  this  time  the  Roman 
tribune,  Rienzi,^  succeeded,  for  a  few  months,  in  restor- 
ing order  and  dignity  to  his  native  city.  Turbulent  nobles 
submitted  to  his  authority;  not  only  Italian 
cities,  but  foreign  kings,  recognized  the  new  *  *  ^^^^' 
Republic;  robbery  ceased,  and  prosperity  revived.  But 
Rienzi's  head  was  turned  by  his  success;  he  was  expelled; 
and  when,  after  six  years'  exile  and  imprisonment,  he 
returned  with  the  support  of  the  pope,  he  was  slain  in  a 
popular  riot. 

368.  In  1377,  Pope  Gregory  XI.  came  back  to  Rome; 
but  his  death  was  followed  by  the  Great  Schism  (§  419), 
during  which  two,  and  even  three,  popes  were  obeyed  at 
once  by  different  nations.  In  spite  of  these  troubfes,  Italy 
was  by  far  the  richest  and  most  civilized  portion  of  Europe. 
The  merchant-princes  of  Genoa  and  Venice  lived  in  palaces 
surpassing  those  of  kings,  or  even  emperors,  north  of  the 
Alps.  Their  commerce  embraced  all  Europe,  with  south- 
ern and  central  Asia;  and,  handling  the  money  of  all 
nations,  they  were  the  first  modern  bankers.  The  Bank 
of  Venice  dates  from  1171  A.  D.  While  the  Eastern 
Empire  was  falling  to  pieces  through  its  own  weakness 
and  the  attacks  of  the  Turks,  Venice  became  sovereign 
of  the  Morea,  with  Cyprus,  Crete,  and  many  of  the  Greek 
islands.     Her  great  rival   was  Genoa,  which  monopolized 


2i6  MEDIEVAL   HISTORY. 

the  commerce  of  the  Black  Sea,  and  this  rivalry  occasioned 
many  wars. 

369.  Florence  is  most  celebrated  of  all  the  Italian  re- 
publics for  the  freedom  of  her  government  and  the  genius 
of  her  people.  The  wealth  of  her  great  bankers,  traders, 
and  manufacturers  of  wool  made  many  princes  their  debt- 
ors. After  1343  A.  D.,  magistrates  could  be  chosen  only 
from  the  "Arts,"  or  trades-unions,  and  thus  the  indus- 
trial classes  had  supreme  control  of  the  government. 
Dan'te,  the  greatest  poet  of  the  Middle  Ages,  was  a  Flor- 
entine, but  he  spent  most  of  his  manhood  in  exile,  owing 
to  the  deadly  strife  of  Guelfs  and  Ghibellines. 

370.  The  chief  power  in  Florence  fell,  during  the 
fifteenth  century,  into  the  hands  of  the  Med'ici,  a  family 
of  wealthy  citizens.  Cosmo  de  Medici  was  the  first  who 
assumed    to   nominate    candidates    for   public    office.      His 

grandson,  Loren'zo  the  Magnificent,  pro- 
1492.  j^^Qj.^^  ^^  revival  of  learning  and  the  arts. 
He  collected  ancient  gems  and  statues,  which  stimulated 
the  genius  of  the  young  artists  whom  his  liberal  patron- 
age drew  about  him.  His  ascendency  marks  the  most 
brilliant  period  of  Florentine  history. 

371.  Meanwhile  the  German  cities  had  also  risen  to 
great  importance.  Each  was  governed  by  a  Council  of 
its  own  choosing;  and,  free  from  the  jealousies  which 
often  ruined  the  Italian  cities,  they  formed  leagues  for  the 
common  defense.  Their  chief  enemies  were  the  knights 
and  nobles,  who  lived  by  plunder,  and  liked  nothing  so 
well  as  to  rob  a  merchant  of  his  costly  wares.  The  idea 
that  a  mere  tradesman  could  have  rights  which  they  were 
bound  to  respect  never  occurred  to  these  noble  high- 
waymen. 

372.  The  League  of  the  Rhine,  A.  D.  1255,  numbered 
60  cities:  that  of  Suabia,  in  1376,  was  still  larger.  Several 
free  cities  of  Upper  Germany  —  now   Switzerland**— joined 


THE  HANSEATIC  LEAGUE.  217 

the  Forest  Cantons  in  a  league,  which  at  length  secured 
the  independence  of  the  Swiss  republics.  Equally  remark- 
able was  the  union  of  the  Hanse*  towns  of  northern 
(Jerniany,  for  the  protection  of  their  trade  from  pirates  at 
sea  and  robbers  on  land.  Tliis  league  of  merchants  be- 
came so  powerful  that  its  fleets  controlled  the  northern 
seas,  and  kings  were  proud  of  its  alliance.  Among  its 
foreign  factories  were  London  and  Bruges,  where  the  Ger- 
man and  Italian  merchants  met  to  exchange  the  gems, 
silks,  and  finer  fabrics  of  Asia  and  the  south  for  the  fish, 
hemp,  and  iinil)er  of  the  north;  for,  to  the  slow  navigation 
of  those  days,  the  voyage  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the 
Baltic  was  too  long  to  be  made  in  a  single  summer. 

373.  During  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries,  the 
common  people  were  gaining  power  in  almost  every 
country  in  Europe.  Before  this  time,  society,  outside 
of  the  Church,  had  been  chiefly  made  up  of  nobles,  with 
their  vassals  and  serfs.  But  the  cities  of  Italy,  Spain,  and 
southern  France  had  always  kept  something  of  the  free- 
dom which  they  had  enjoyed  under  the  Romans;  and,  in 
Germany,  England,  and  the  Low  Countries,  the  wealth  of 
artisans  and  merchants  was  now  so  great  as  to  make  them 
important  to  the  sovereigns,  who  were  always  in  want  of 
money.  Accordingly,  representatives  of  the  cities  began 
to  be  called  to  a  share  in  the  government  of  all  these 
countries. 

Point  out,  on  Map  No.  9,  Genoa,  Venice,  and  her  dominions. 
Florence.     Milan.     Avignon.     Lubec.     Hamburg.     Bruges.     London. 

Read  Sismondi's  History  of  the  Italian  Republics  ;  Campbell's 
Life  of  Petrarch;  Dante's  "Vita  Nuova,"  translated  by  Norton; 
Longfellow's  *'  Dante,"  with  the  Notes  ;  Roscoe's  Life  of  Lorenzo 
de'  Medici;  J.  A.  Symonds's  Renaissance  in  Italy,  Vol.  I.,  The  Age 
of  the  Despots. 


2l8  MEDIEVAL   HISTORY. 


NOTES. 

1.  Hapsburg  was  a  rather  insignificant  little  castle  in  soutliern  Sua- 
bia,  though  its  name  has  become  one  of  the  most  illustrious  in  Europe^ 
from  its  having  been  the  cradle  of  so  powerful  a  family.  Knight  Ru- 
dolph, the  founder  of  the  ducal  and  imperial  line,  was  so  poor  that  he 
is  said  to  have  mended  his  own  clothes;  but  he  was  a  brave  and  pru- 
dent man,  well  able  to  cope  with  the  disorderly  elements  within  the 
empire.    Ottocar,  king  of  Bohemia,  was  the  most  dangerous  of  the  great 

f)rinces;  but  he  was  subdued,  and  his  kingdom  was  added,  a  few  years 
ater,  to  the  dominions  of  the  House  of  Luxembourg.  Subsequently  it 
became  a  part  of  the  Austrian  dominion,  to  which  i,t  still  belongs.  " 

Rudolph  bestowed  the  Duchy  of  Austria  upon  his  son  Albert,  who 
was  afterwards  elected  King  of  tlie  Germans,  though  he  was  never 
crowned  at  Rome. 

2.  Charles  married  Beatrice,  daughter  of  Count  Raymond-Berenger 
of  Provence,  who  is  said  to  have  been  bitterly  dissatisfied  with  the  title 
of  Countess,  while  her  sisters  were  the  wives  of  kings.  One  of  them 
was  Eleanor,  consort  of  Henry  III.  of  England  (g  384).  The  ambition  of 
Charles,  however,  needed  no  incitement  from  his  wife's  complaints; 
and  the  events  of  that  turbulent  age  afforded  him  abundant  opportunity 
for  self-aggrandizement.  The  Pope  having  excommunicated  the  two 
sons  of  Frederic  II.,  bestowed  upon  him  the  Sicilian  kingdoms;  while 
the  titles  of  senator  of  Rome  and  imperial  vicar,  which  he  held  during 
the  interregnum  in  the  empire  (§  365),  gave  him  the  control  of  all  the 
rest  of  Italy.  By  his  orders,  young  Conradin,  grandson  of  Frederic  II.— 
who  had  come  into  Italy  to  claim  his  inheritance,  but  had  been  de- 
feated and  captured— was  beheaded  with  five  of  his  companions  in  the 
market-place  at  Naples.  On  the  scaffold  the  prince  solemnly  bequeathed 
his  kingdom  to  his  cousin  Constance,  wife  of  the  king  of  Aragon;  and 
Sicily  soon  became  a  possession  of  her  family.  Naples  and  its  territo- 
ries were  for  centuries  in  dispute  between  the  French  and  the  Aragonese 
princes.  Charles  of  Anjou  died  in  1285,  the  same  year  with  the  kings 
of  France  and  Aragon. 

3.  Nicolas,  or  Colas  di  Rienzi  was  born  at  Rome,  was  liberally  edu- 
cated, and  became  a  friend  of  the  poet  Petrarch  about  A.  D.  1340.  In  1342 
he  accompanied  Petrarch  and  others  in  a  deputation  sent  by  the  citizens 
to  the  Pope  at  Avignon,  beseeching  him  to  return  to  Rome.  The  city  was 
a  prey  to  tumult  and  anarchy— the  great  nobles  issuing  from  their  castles 
to  rob  and  murder  at  their  will,  while  their  armed  followers  had  al- 
most daily  fights  in  the  streets.  Since  neither  Emperor  nor  Pope  would 
come  to  the  rescue,  Rienzi  proposed  to  the  citizens  a  restoration  of  the 
"Good  Estate"  of  the  ancient  republic.  Refusing  the  proud  title  of 
Senator,  which  they  would  gladly  have  bestowed,  he  chose  to  be  called 
Tribune,  or  champion  of  the  people ;  and,  for  a  few  months,  Rome  resumed 
something  of  her  ancient  rank.  The  king  of  Hungary  and  the  queen 
of  Naples  submitted  their  cause  to  his  arbitration,  and  the  republics  of 
northern  Italy  sought  his  protection.  He  cited  the  Emperor  Louis  to 
appear  and  submit  his  election,  as  of  old,  to  the  choice  of  the  Roman 
people,  and  he  required  the  Pope  and  the  cardinals  to  return  to  their 
lawful  seats.  The  story  of  Rienzi  is  well  told  in  Bulwer's  Rienzi,  the  Last 
of  the  Ti-ibunes. 

4.  Beginning  of  the  Swiss  League.  "While  the  three  kingdoms 
which  belonged  to  the  empire  were  thus  getting  weaker  and  more  di- 
vided, and  while  the  kingdom  of  France  to  the  west  of  them  was  grow- 
ing stronger  and  stronger,  two  new  powers  gradually  arose  in  what  we 
may  call  the  border-land  of  all  these  kingdoms.  One  of  these  lasted  but 
a  short  time,  but  the  other  has  lived  on  to  our  own  day.  These  are  the 
Duchy  of  Burgundy  and  the  League  of  the  Swiss  Cantons.  This  last  began 
among  three  small  mountain  districts  on  the  borders  of  Germany,  Bur- 
gundy, and  Italy,  called  Uri,  Schwytz  and  Unterwalden.  They  were  Ger- 
man-speaking members  of  the  empire,  and  there  was  nothing  to  dis- 
tinguish them  from  other  German-speaking  members  of  the  empire, 
except  that  they  had  kept  far  more  of  the  freedom  of  the  old  times 
than  most  other  lands  had.    Like  many  other  districts  and  cities  of  the 


NOTES.  219 

empire,  tliey  Joined  together  in  a  league  for  mutual  defenKe.  Tliis  tbey 
hiuf  doubt lesM  done  fn)iu  curlier  timt>«.  but  the  first  written  document 
of  their  unl«>n  bclonjfs  to  the  year  121»I.  Tlio  Counts  of  llnpshiirK  (See 
g."}(M  anil  note),  who  had  now  become  Dukes  of  Austria,  and  who  liad 
estates  witliin  the  three  lamls  themselves,  were  now  very  dangerous 
nelnlibors,  and  the  confedenites  liad  to  keep  close  together  In  order  to 
guard  their  lYcetlom.  This  they  made  safe  by  tlie  battle  of  Moi-garten, 
which  they  won  over  Duke  l^'opold  of  Austria,  in  \'M'\.  Presently  sev- 
eml  of  the  neinhborinK  cities.  Lucerne,  Zurich,  and  lierne.  Joined  their 
alliance,  as  did  also  the  smaller  towns  of  Zujj  and  (ilarus;  so  that  in  the 
course  of  the  fourteenth  century  they  had  a  league  of  eight  states.  Its 
name  was  the  old  League  of  Higli  (lermanj',  and  its  members  were 
enlled  the  FAiUjenoxsen  or  Con/rdrmlc.i;  but  the  name  of  the  Canton  of 
Sehwytz  gradually  spread  over  the  whole  league,  and  they  came  to  be 
commonly  called  .Swiss,  and  their  country  Switzerland.    .    .    . 

"Such  a  league  wa.s,  of  course,  much  dreaded  by  the  neighboring  no- 
bles, but  it  was  for  a  long  time  favored  by  the  Emperors.  .  .  .  But 
the  Dukes  of  Austria  were  their  constant  enemies,  and  therefore,  when 
the  empire  passed  into  the  Austrian  House,  the  confederates  had  to  be 
on  their  guard  against  a  power  which  had  hitherto  been  friendly.  But 
they  did  not  throw  otf  their  allegiance  to  the  empire.  .  .  .  They  were 
simply  one  of  many  (lernum  leagues,  which  circumstances  allowed  to 
become  more  independent  than  the  others,  and,  as  it  turned  out,  to 
survive  them." — J^Wrmati'.s  (icn.  tSkrtch,  21it-221. 

The  Swiss  republics  were  tii-st  recognized  as  a  separate  power  by  the 
Treaty  of  Westphalia  (i;o72)  in  1W8.  Switzerland  is  now  a  Federal  Re- 
public, composed  of  25  states,  or  22  cantons,  whose  constitution  closely 
resembles  that  of  the  United  States. 

5.  The  name  Hansa  was  used  in  the  middle  ages  to  denote  a  union, 
first  of  merchants  and  afterwards  of  towns,  for  commercial  purposes. 
The  Hansa.  or  Hanseatic  League,  which  became  so  extensive  as  usually 
to  monopolize  the  nante,  grew  from  a  union  of  Hamburg  and  Lubeck— 
the  one  commanding  ihe  Nortli  Sea,  the  other  the  Baltic— to  avoid  by 
u  land  route,  the  dangerous  passage  of  the  Sound  and  the  Belts,  and 
escape  the  "Sound  Dues"  levied  by  the  Kings  of  Denmark.  The  mer- 
chants of  those  days  had  great  need  to  combine  for  nmtual  protection; 
for  the  seas  swarmed  with  pirates  and  the  land  with  robbers— often  of 
noble  birth— who  regarded  peaceful  traders  as  their  natural  prey.  The 
feudal  system  had  no  place  for  merchanUs,  but  recognized  only  lords, 
vassals,  and  serfs.  It  was  necessary,  therefore,  for  the  inhabitants  or 
cities  to  look  to  their  rights  as  against  the  landed  aristocracy.  It  Is  not 
known  how  early  the  northern  I^eague  was  formed;  but  in  13()2  it  was 
powerful  enough  to  storm  and  capture  ("oi)onhagen.  In  a  subsequent 
war  all  Denmark  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Ix'ague,  and,  by  the  Treaty 
of  Stralsund,  A.  D.  ITTO,  King  Waldemar  resigned  to  them  two  thirds 
of  all  his  revenues  for  fifteen  years,  as  the  price  of  his  return  to  his 
throne.  This  war  had  a  great  eflect  in  consolidating  the  League  and 
leading  it  to  adopt  a  regular  federal  constitution.  In  later  times  it  was 
divided  into  four  quartei*s,  with  their  respective  capitals  at  Lubeck, 
<"ologne,  Brunswick,  and  Dantzic.  The  foreign  factories  were  Ix)ndon, 
Bruges,  Bergen  in  Norway,  and  Novgorod  in  Russia— the  latter  then  a 
town  of  ,'iOO,000  inhabitants,  and  an  important  center  of  art.  learning, 
and  industry.  After  more  than  three  centuries  of  power,  the  League 
declined,  partly  because  of  the  diversion  of  commerce  to  the  new  mar- 
itime routes  (ii'V));  partly,  perhaps,  because  of  the  better  protection  af- 
forded by  goverments.  A  minor  cause  is  curious:  the  annual  shoals  of 
herrings  changed  their  course  to  the  southward,  greatly  enriching  Hol- 
land, but  withdrawing  from  the  Swedish  and  Norwegian  coasts,  where 
the  Hansa  had  a  monopoly  of  the  fisheries.  The  last  general  assembly 
of  the  League  took  place  in  166*9.  Lubeck,  Hamburg,  and  Bremen  con- 
tinued to  call  themselves  Hanse-towns,  but  the  union  ceased. 


Mongol  Warrior. 


CHAPTER    VIII. 

THE   TARTAR    CONQUESTS. 

,URING  the  last  Crusades,  Asia 
and  Eastern  Europe  suffered  the 
most  terrible  devastations  from  the 
nomadic  races  (§2)  which  history 
records.  The  Turks,  a  brutal  race 
of  Tartars,  had  been,  first,  the  hired 
soldiers  and  then  the  conquerors  of 
the  caliphs  (§303).  Their  domin- 
ion, during  the  last  half  of  the 
eleventh  century,  extended  over  the 
greater  part  of  central  and  western 
Asia.  Another  Tartar  family  con- 
quered India,  and  plundered  its  temples  of  an  untold 
wealth  of  gold  and  jewels. 

375.  But  the  greatest  of  these  Scythian  hordes  were  the 
Mongols,  led  by  Tem'ujin,  whose  irresistible  power  gained 
for  him  the  name  of  Gen'ghis  Khmi}  or  Universal  Lord. 
Followed  by  an  immense  army,  he  first  undertook  the  con- 
quest of  China.  The  Great  Wall,  built  fourteen  centuries 
before,  to  keep  out  the  ancestors  of  the  Mongols,  proved 
to  be  no  sufficient  barrier;  nor  could  the  artificial  thunders 
and  lightnings,  which  were  launched  from  the  walls  of 
Pekin  —  for  the  Chinese  had  long  known  the 
uses  of  gunpowder — prevent  the  capture  of 
that  capital  and  the  conquest  of  northern  China.  Subse- 
quent wars  made  Genghis  master  of  all  central  Asia,  from 
the  Pacific  Ocean  to  the  Black  Sea,  a  country  which  was 
then  richer  and  more  civilized  than  now.  Hundreds  of 
(220) 


A.   D.  1215. 


MONGOLS  AND    TURK'S.  221 


iwpulous  cities,  stored  with  the  treasures  of  art,  learning, 
and  industry,  were  destroyed;  and  five  millions  of  human 
lives  are  said  to  have  been  sacrificed  to  this  monster's 
thirst  for  dominion. 

376.  The  descendants  of  Genghis  overthrew  the  feeble 
remnant  of  the  Abbasside  Emi)ire  at  Bagdad,  and  extended 

their  raids  to  the  Adriatic,  the  borders  of  Germany,  and 
the  Polar  Sea.  Russia  paid  tribute  to  them 
for  more  than  two  hundred  years;  ami  the 
Mongol  dominion  was  the  most  extensive  that  the  world 
has  ever  seen.  Ku'blai  Khan,  a  grandson  of  Temujin, 
conquered  southern  China,  and  ruled  all  Asia,  except 
Hindustan,  Arabia,  and  Syria.  He  invited  Christian  mis- 
sionaries to  his  court  at  Pekin;  and  kept  the  famous 
Venetian  traveler,  Marco  Polo,^many  years  in  his  service. 

377.  During  the  next  century  the  Mongol  Empire  fell 
to  pieces;  but,  about  1365  A.  D.,  Ti'mour,  or  Tam'erlane,^ 
a  descendant  of  Genghis,  set  out  on  a  career  of  concpiest 
which  nearly  reunited  all  his  ancestor's  dominions,  with  the 
addition  of  Hindustan.  Pyramids  of  human  heads  marked 
the  fields  of  his  victories,  and  100,000  captives  were  mur- 
dered at  one  time  in  cold  blood,  lest  they  should  hinder 
his    march!      In    a    battle    with    the    Ottoman 

Turks,  at  Angora,  in  Asia   Minor,  Timour  de-  *  ''*°''* 

feated  and  captured  Bajazet,  their  chief,  whom  he  kept 
the  rest  of  his  life  in  an  iron  cage.  Not  only  the  Otto- 
mans, but  the  Roman  Empire  of  the  East,  paid  tribute  to 
the  conqueror.  Ba'ber,  a  descendant  of  Timour,  founded 
the  great  Mogul  Empire  in  India.  Its  seat  was  at  Delhi, 
and  its  magnificence  has  probably  never  been  surpassed. 

378.  The  Ottoman  Empire  was  founded,  A.  D. 
1288- 1326,  by  Oth'man,  who  fixed  his  capital  at  Brusa. 
One  by  one  the  provinces  of  the  Eastern  Empire,  both  in 
Asia  and  Europe,  fell  into  his  hands,  until  only  Constanti- 
nople remained  to  the  Caesars;  and  even  within   its  walls 


222  MEDI/EVAL   HISTORY. 

the  Turks  had  a  colony.     The  first  regular  standing  army 
in  Europe  was  formed  by  Am'urath  I.  from  Christian  cap- 
tives   taken   in   childhood,   whom   he   trained 

A.  D,  1^60-1389.  •  1         1  •  1  1  T 

With  the  greatest  strictness  to  be  soldiers 
and  Mohammedans.  These  Janizaries^  were  the  best  sol- 
diery the  world  then  knew,  and  were  perfectly  devoted  to 
their  sultan. 

379.  The  chief  defenders  of  Europe  were  the  Hungari- 
ans, but  their  king,  Sig'ismund,  was  twice  defeated  by  the 

Turks,  and,  at  Nicopolis,  his  army  of  100,000, 
'  ^^^  numbering  the  bravest  knights  in  Christendom, 
was  routed,  or  destroyed,  by  Bajazet  (§  377).  Constanti- 
nople was  four  times  besieged  without  effect,  but  at  length, 
in  1453,  Mohammed  II.  encamped,  with  an  irresistible 
force,  about  its  walls.  His  cannon  soon  effected  a  breach, 
the  Janizaries  rushed  in,  and,  on  the  fifty-third  day  of  the 
siege,  the  imperial  city  fell.  Constantine  XII, ,  the  last  of 
the  eastern  Caesars,  was  slain  in  its  defense. 

380.  This  great  event  filled  all  Europe  with  terror.  The 
** Turks'  Bell"  rang  at  noon  from  every  spire,  calling  all 
Christians  to  pray  for  the  defeat  of  the  infidel.  The  Hun- 
garians kept  up  a  brave  resistance;  and  their  leader, 
Hunia'des,  by  a  victory  over  Mohammed  II.,  rescued  the 
important  fortress  of  Belgrade,  commanding  the  Danube. 
The  Pope's  attempt  to  unite  all  the  powers  of  Europe 
in  a  crusade   failed.     Venice  carried  on  war  fifteen  years 

with  the  intruders  on  her  own  account;   but  at 
'  ^'^^^'      length  made  peace,   and  even   entered  upon  a 
disgraceful  traffic  with  the  Turks  for  Christian  slaves. 

Trace,  on  Maps  No.  4  and  7,  the  conquests  of  Genghis  Klian  and 
his  descendants.  The  progress  of  the  Ottoman  Turks.  Point  out 
Bagdad.     Belgrade. 

The  last  chapters  of  Gil)bon,  and  the  first  of  Dyer's  History  of. 
Modern  Europe,  are  the  best  authorities.  Read,  also,  P'inlay's 
History  of  the  Byzantine  and  Greek  empires. 


NOTES.  223 


NOTES. 

1.  Tho  title  GenghlR  KImn  is  spoiled  In  twenty  (lifforont  ways,  with 
almost  equal  anthority,  an<l  is  variously  int<'ri)rete(l.  S<»ine  Kupposo  It 
to  t>e  equivalent  to  the  (.'lilnese  C'liinK^zv  or  rorfect  Warrior.  On  his 
fatlier's  ileath,  Tenuijln  suecoodcd  to  tho  chlcftainshi])  of  tho  MonKol 
tribes  at  the  ji^o  of  thirtet'n,  A.  I).  1175  Most  of  the  soeondary  chlefH 
Imd  been  held  in  subjeotion  by  the  Iron  rule  of  the  old  warrior,  and 
iiad  no  mind  to  submit  to  he  led  by  a  child;  but  the  i.reeoclous  spirit 
<»f  the  lad  and  his  mother's  energy  soon  established  his  supremacy. 
Many  years  of  war  were  reiiulred,  however,  before  the  chief  of  a  few 
tribes  could  call  himself  the  ruler  of  an  empire.  In  120({,  at  the  age  of 
41,  he  convened  a  great  assembly  of  the  notables  of  his  kingdom  at  his 
lurtliplace  in  Mongt)lla,  and,  nt  their  request,  assumed  the  title  above 
quoted.  His  followers  were  culled  the  Golden  Horde,  lie  died  A.  D. 
1227,  In  Mongolia. 

2.  Marco  Polo  was  the  greatest  traveler  of  thfe  Middle  Ages,  and  the 
first  who,  from  his  own  experience,  made  known  to  Europeans  the 
wonders  of  the  farthest  extremities  t)f  Ashu  The  good  king,  Louis  the 
Ninth  of  France,  had  indeed  sent  the  Franciscan  Rubruquls  (or  Uuys- 
brock)  on  a  mission  to  the  Tartar  courts  (2370),  and  his  vivid  pictures 
of  the  almost  unknown  world  of  central  Asia  are  invaluable  to  students 
of  that  time;  but  his  travels  were  much  less  extensive  than  those  of 
Polo.  The  latter,  siiys  Col.  Yule,  "  was  the  first  to  tnvce  a  route  across 
the  whole  longitude  of  Asia,  naming  and  describing  kingdom  after 
kingdom  which  he  had  seen  with  his  own  eyes;  the  deserts  of  Persia, 
the  Ilowerlng  plateaus  and  wild  gorges  of  Biulakhshan.  .  .  .  The  Mon- 
golian Steppes,  cradle  of  the  power  that  had  so  lately  threatened  to 
swallow  up  Christendom;  the  new  and  brilliant  court  that  had  been 
established  at  Cambaluc;  the  first  traveler  to  reveal  China  in  all  its 
wealth  and  vjvstnoss,— its  mighty  rivers,  its  huge  cities,  its  rich  manu- 
factures. Its  swarming  population,  the  inconceivably  vast  fleets  that 
quickened  its  seas  and  inland  waters;  to  tell  us  of  the  nations  on  Its 
borders  with  all  their  eccentricities  of  manners  and  worship.  ...  of 
Japan,  the  eastern  Thule,  with  Its  rt)sy  pearls  and  golden-roofed  palaces; 
the  first  to  speak  of  that  museum  of  beauty  and  wonder,  still  so  Im- 
perfectly ransacked,  the  Indian  Archipelago,  source  of  those  aromatlcs 
then  so  highly  prized,  and  whose  origin  was  so  dark;  of  Java,  the  pearl 
of  Islands;  of  Sumatra,  with  its  many  kings,  Its  strange,  costly  pnKiucts, 
and  its  cannibal  races.  ...  of  India  the  great,  not  as  a  dream-land 
of  Alexandrian  fables,  but  as  a  country  seen  and  partially  explored.  .  .  . 
the  first  in  mediteval  times  to  give  any  distinct  account  of  the  secluded 
Christian  empire  of  Abyssinia,  and  tlie  semi-Christian  Island  of  Soco- 
tra;  to  speak,  though  indeed  dimly,  of  Zanzibar,  and  of  the  vast  and 
distant  Madagascar,  bordering  on  the  Dark  Ocean  of  the  south;  .  .  . 
and,  in  a  remotely  opposite  region,  of  Siberia  and  the  Arctic  Ocean,  of 
dog-sledges,  white  bears,  and  reindeer-riding  Tunguses." 

The  father  and  uncle  of  Marco  Polo,  who  were  merchants,  were  the 
first  to  visit  the  court  of  Kublal  Khan  in  Cathay,  or  Eastern  China. 
The  Tartar  prince  was  delighted  with  their  accounts  of  Europe,  and,  on 
their  return,  made  them  the  bearers  of  a  very  important  mes.sage  to  the 
Pope.  He  desired  a  hundred  educated  missionaries  to  convert  his  peo- 
ple to  the  Christian  faith.  Kublai  himself  was  perhaps  Indifferent  to- 
wards all  religions;  but  he  strongly  wished  to  improve  and  civilize  his 
rude  Tartar  kinsmen,  and  judged  from  the  conversation  of  these  worthy 
Venetians  that  their  faith  would  better  effect  this  result  than  Moham- 
medanism or  any  other  form  of  belief  that  he  had  met. 

On  their  arrival  at  Acre,  In  1269,  the  brothers  found  that  Pope  Clem- 
ent IV.  had  died,  and  no  succes-sor  had  been  elected.  It  was  more  than 
two  years  before  they  could  obtain  an  answer  to  their  request,  and  then 
only  two  Dominican  friars  were  willing  to  undertake  the  toilsome  jour- 
ney. Even  they  drew  back  at  the  first  experience  of  Its  hardships;  and 
Kublai  Khan,  for  want  of  Christian  instructors,  was  forced  to  commit 
the  spiritual  care  of  his  people  to  the  IjJimas  of  Thibet. 

Marco  Polo,  now  seventeen  years  old,  joined  his  father  and  uncle  in 
this  second  expedition,  and,  after  an  adventurous  journey  of  three  years 
and  a  half,  arrived.  In  A.  D.  1275,  at  the   Cathayan  court.    He  was  kindly 


2  24  MEDIALVAL   HISTORY. 


received  by  the  monarch,  and  set  himself  diligently  to  learn  the  many 
languages  spoken  in  this  mixed  dominion.  He  was  soon  employed  in 
important  missions  to  the  various  provinces,  whose  people  were  "in 
every  stage  of  uncivilization,"  and  "afforded  him  an  acquaintance  with 
many  strange  products  and  eccentric  traits  of  manners."  He  "had  ob- 
served the  Khan's  delight  in  hearing  of  strange  countries,  their  marvels, 
manners,  and  oddities,  and  had  heard  his  Majesty's  frank  expressions 
of  disgust  at  the  stupidity  of  his  commissioners,  when  they  could  speak 
of  nothing  but  the  official  business  on  which  they  had  been  sent.  Prof- 
iting by  these  observations,  he  took  care  to  store  his  memory  or  his 
note-books  with  all  curious  facts  that  were  likely. to  interest  Kublai, 
and  related  them  with  vivacity  on  his  return  to  court."  Thus  he  cul- 
tivated his  powei's  of  observation  and  description,  and  became  the  most 
delightful  of  story-tellers. 

After  twenty  years  spent  in  the  service  of  the  Tartar  prince,  the  three 
Venetians  were  allowed  to  depart  by  sea  with  a  fleet  consisting  of  thir- 
teen Chinese  junks.  They  cruised  among  the  islands  and  along  the 
coasts  of  India  nearly  two  years,  but  landed  at  length  at  Hormuz,  in 
the  Persian  Gulf,  and  proceeded  northward  to  Tabreez,  and  thence 
westward  by  Tret)izond,  Constantinople,  and  Negropont  to  Venice. 

They  found  their  house  occupied  by  others,  and  themselves  unknown 
even  to  their  nearest  kin;  but,  when  they  produced  from  the  seams 
and  linings  of  tiieir  "shabby  Tartar  raiment,"  the  wealth  of  rubies,  dia- 
monds, and  emeralds  which  the  great  Khan  had  conferred  ujjon  them, 
they  began  to  be  recognized.  "And  straightway  the  whole  city,  gentle 
and  simple,  flocked  to  the  house  to  embrace  them,"  and  to  hear  the 
wonderful  stories  of  their  adventures. 

Subsequently  Marco  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Genoese  in  the  battle 
of  Curzola,  and  it  was  during  the  tedious  hours  of  captivity  at  Genoa 
that  the  story  of  his  travels  was  written  down  from  his  lips. 

3.  This  name  is  a  corruption  of  Taimoor-Leng— Timour  the  Lame. 
Timour  was  born  A.  D.  13^36,  at  Kesh,  in  Independent  Tartary.  His 
military  career  began  about  1361,  when  he  took  part  with  Husein,  Khan 
of  northern  Khorassan,  against  some  neighboring  tribes,  and  received  the 
wound  which  made  him  lame  for  life— though  it  did  not  diminish  his 
warlike  energy.  His  subsequent  conquests  extended  from  the  Grecian 
archipelago  to  central  India.  An  Afghan  dynasty  was  now  reigning  in 
great  magnificence  at  Delhi,  its  enormous  wealth  drawing  upon  it  fre- 
quent attacks  from  the  Mongols;  but  the  invasion  of  Timour  led,  in  a 
few  years,  to  its  fall.  Crossing  the  Hindu  Kush,  A.  D.  1398,  with  90,000 
horsemen,  the  Tartar  chief  penetrated  to  the  plain  of  Delhi,  conquered 
the  city  in  a  great  battle,  and  gave  it  over  to  his  followers,  who  loaded 
themselves  with  gold  and  jewels.  Savage  though  he  was  in  his  cruelty, 
Timour  delighted  in  the  conversation  of  learned  men,  and  in  enriching 
Samarcand,  his  capital,  with  works  of  art  and  collections  of  cho:ce 
manuscripts.    He  died  on  his  march  toward  China,  1405. 

4.  The  Janizaries  were  the  favorite  soldiers  of  the  Sultan ;  and  their 
place  of  honor  near  his  person,  the  splendor  of  their  equipment,  and 
the  liberality  with  which  they  were  treated,  all  combined  to  attach 
them  to  his  service.  They  had  usually  been  taken  from  their  homes  at 
so  early  an  age  that  they  had  forgotten  their  parents  and  the  scenes  of 
childhood;  and  trained,  as  they  were,  in  the  Mohammedan  religion, 
there  was  nothing  to  conflict  with  their  new  allegiance.  After  the 
Turkish  power  began  to  decline,  their  ranks  could  no  longer  be  recruited 
by  captives  taken  in  war,  and  the  odious  child-tribute  was  imposed  on 
the  Christian  populations  subject  to  the  Porte.  No  family  was  secure 
from  the  visits  of  the  recruiting  officer,  who  seized  the  most  promising 
boys  and  dragged  them  away  to  the  barracks  at  Constantinople.  Nat- 
urally, as  the  Turkish  government  grew  weaker,  this  powerful  soldiery 
became  a  source  of  danger  rather  than  of  strength.  Each  sultan  in 
succession  had  to  buy  the  obedience  of  the  Janizaries  by  an  increased 
donative,  and,  like  the  Praetorian  guards  of  ancient  Rome  ((:;g256,  2«»0), 
they  presumed  to  set  up,  depose,  and  even  murder  sultans  at  their  will, 
Othman  II.,  after  reverses  in  war,  -was  murdered  in  1622  by  his  Janiza- 
ries, who  then  dragged  from  a  dungeon  his  imbecile  uncle,  Mustapha, 
and  placed  him  upon  the  throne.  At  last,  in  1826,  Sultan  Mahmoud 
put  an  end  to  this  dangerous  body  of  troops  by  a  summary  massacre. 


MAP  No.  IX. 


WRITERS  OF  THE  LATER  MIDDLE  AGES 
AND  THE  RENAISSANCE. 


Italian. 

Dante,  A.  D.  1265-1321:  *'The  Divine  Comedy,"  etc. 

Petrarch,  1304-1374:  Sonnets,  etc. 

Boccaccio,  1313-1375:   *' The  Decameron." 

Ariosto,  1474-1533:  **  Orlando  Furioso." 

Tasso,  1544-1595:  "Jerusalem  Delivered." 

Machiavelli,    1469-1527 :     **  History   of  Florence;"    "The 

Prince,"  etc. 
Guicciardini,  1482-1540:   **  History  of  Italy." 

French. 

Froissart,  1333-1400.   "Chronicles." 

Philippe  de  Comines,  1445-1509:   "Memoirs." 

Queen  Margaret  of  Navarre,  1492-1549:  "The  Heptameron." 

Rabelais,  1483-1553:   "Gargantua  and  Pantagruel." 

Montaigne,  1 533-1 592:   "Essays." 

English. 

John  Wicliffe,  1324-1384:   First  English  Translation  of  the 

Bible. 
Sir  John  Mandeville,  1300-1372  :   "Voyage  and  Travel." 
Robert  Langland,  1332-1400:  "Vision  of  Piers  Plowman." 
Geoffrey  Chaucer,  1328-1400:  "Canterbury  Tales,"  etc. 
John  Gower,  1327-1408:  "Confession  of  a  Lover." 
Sir  Thomas  Malory,  1430-1465  :   "Morte  d'  Arthur." 


MEDIAEVAL   AND    RENAISSANCE 
ARTISTS. 


Cimabue,  A.   D.   1 240-1 302  :    Founder  of  Italian  School  ol 

Painting. 
Giotto,  1276-1336:   Frescoes,  Bell  Tower  at  Florence,  etc. 
Orcagna,   1 329-1 376  :    Frescoes  in  Campo  Santo,  at  Pisa. 
Hubert  and  Jan  Van  Eyck,  1 366-1440:  Founders  of  Flemish 

School  of  Painting. 
Lorenzo  Ghiberti,    1381-1455  :    Bronze  Gates  of  Baptistery 

at  Florence. 
Brunelleschi,    1377-1444:    Dome  of  Cathedral  at  Florence. 
Donatello,  1383-1466:  Statues  of  St.  George,  St.  Peter,  etc. 
Masaccio,   1402-1429 :  Frescoes,  etc. 
Leonardo  da  Vinci,  1452-15 19:    ''Last  Supper,"  at  Milan, 

etc. 
Michael  Angelo  Buonarroti,  1475-1564:  Statues,  Frescoes, 

Church  of  St.  Peter  at  Rome. 
Raphael  Sanzio  d'  Urbino,   1483-1520:  Paintings. 
Ghirlandajo;  1451-1495:   Frescoes  at  Florence,  etc. 
Perugino,   1446-1524:  Frescoes  at  Perugia  and  Rome. 
John  of  BeUini,   1424-15 14:  Founder  of  Venetian  School. 
Francesco  Francia,  1450-1517:  "  Madonna  Enthroned,"  etc. 
Fra  Bartolommeo,   1469-15 17:  Paintings. 
Giorgione,  1477-1511  :  Paintings  of  Venetian  School. 
Titian,  1477-1576:   "The  Assumption,"  etc. 
Andrea  del  Sarto,  1487-1530:  Frescoes  in  Florence,  etc, 
Giulio  Romano,   1 492-1 546:  Frescoes  in  the  Vatican,  etc. 
Correggio,   1494-1534:   Paintings  of  the  "Ascension,"  etc. 
Albert  Durer,    1471-1528:    Founder  of  German  School  of 

Painting,    Inventor   of  Etching,   Perfecter  of  Wood 

Engraving. 
Hans  Holbein,   1495-1543:   Portraits,  etc. 

Note. — The  dates  are  those  of  Woodward  and  Gates'  Encyclo- 
paedia of  Chronology. 


CHAPTER  IX. 


PLANTAGENETS   IN    ENGLAND. 


HE  violence  and  misery  of 
Stephen's  reign  (§  335)  were 
exchanged  for  comparative 
order  and  peace  under  the 
strong  hand  of  Henry  H. 
(A.  D.  1 1 54- 1 189),  one  of 
the  greatest  monarchs  of  his 
age.  He  was  the  first  of 
the  English  Plantagenets,* 
a  family  who  wore  the  crown 
331  years.  By  inheritance 
and  by  marriage,  he  was  lord 
of  more  than  half  of  France; 
and,  though  he  did  homage 
(§317,  350)  to  Louis  VH. 
for  his  two  great  duchies  and 
four  counties,  ^  his  power  greatly  exceeded  that  of  his  suzerain. 

382.  Ireland  was  conquered  by  the  arms  of  his  brave 
barons,  aided  by  the  quarrels  of  its  native  chiefs;  but 
for  centuries  it  brought  little  more  than  a  new  title,  with 
endless  vexations  to  the  English  king.  Henry  had  a 
seven  years'  contention  with  his  former  friend,  Thomas  a 
Becket,  whom  he  had  made  Archbishop  of  Canterbury. 
It  ended  with  the  murder  of  Becket,^  at  the  altar  of  his 
own  cathedral;  but  King  Henry  afterwards  made  a  peni- 
tential pilgrimage  to  the  tomb  at  Canterbury,  where  he 
humbly  begged  the  monks  to  scourge  him   "for  the  good 


Insurgent  Peasants. 


*  From  planta  genesta^  a  sprig  of  broom-corn,  his  father's  badge. 
Hist.-  ,5.  (225) 


226  MEDI/EVAL   HISTORY. 

of  his  soul."  The  same  day,  his  armies  defeated  and 
captured  the  king  of  the  Scots,  and  Henry  joyfully  accepted 
the  victory  as  a  token  of  St.  Thomas'  forgiveness. 

383.  Henry's  son,  Richard  I.  (A.  D.  1 189- 1 199),  is 
best  known  to  us  as  a  crusader  (§§340,  353),  for  he  paid 
little  attention  to  his  kingdom.  His  brother  Jolm  (A.  D. 
T199-1216)  lost  all  his  French  dominions  through  his  crimes 
and  cowardice;  and  the  English  barons,  taking  the  defense 
of  the  kingdom  into  their  own  hands,  forced  him  to  grant 

the  Great  Q\\d.x\,QX^  {Magna  Charta),  which  secured 
■  "'^'  the  foundations  of  justice  and  freedom.  Pope 
Innocent  HI.  called  upon  all  Christian  princes  to  join  in  a 
crusade  to  dethrone  John,  and  his  late  feudal  chief,  the  king 
of  France,  gladly  obeyed  the  summons.  But  John's  sudden 
death  put  an  end  to  the  French  invasion;  for  the  barons 
who  had  opposed  him  bravely  defended  the  rights  of  his 
son  Henry,  who  was  only  n.ine  years  old. 

384.  During  the  weak  reign* of  Henry  HI.  (A.  D.  12 16 
-1272),  the  barons  had  to  assume  the  government  again, 
and  their  great  leader,  Earl  Simon  de  Montfort,  summoned 
the  first  parliament  in  which  citizens  had  part  as  well 
as   nobles   and   bishops.      In   war   with    the   barons.   King 

Henry  and   his   son  were  made   prisoners;    but 
the   next    year    Earl    Simon   was    defeated   and 
slain  at  Evesham. 

385.  Edward  I.  (A.  D.  1272- 1307),  was  recalled  from 
his  crusade  (§355)  to  assume  the  crown.  He  put  an  end 
to  the  bold  robberies,  and  other  disorders,  which  his 
father's  weakness  had  encouraged;  conquered  Wales,  and 
might  have  subdued  Scotland,  but  for  the  brave  resistance 
of  Wallace  and  Bruce.  While  marching  to  meet  the  latter, 
who  had  been  crowned  as  King  Robert  I.,  Edward  died. 
He  was  an  able  and  generous  king,  loving  his  people, 
and  seeking  their  welfare  by  wise  laws  and  a  firm  execu- 
tion of  justice. 


THE  BLACK  PRINCE,  227 

386.  Edward  II.  (A.  D.  1307--1327),  was  the  exact 
opposite   of  his    father — weak,    cowardly,    and 

vicious.     His  defeat  by  Briice,  at  Hannockburn,  '^** 

secured  the  independence  of  Scotland.  His  fondness  for 
worthless  favorites  offended  the  barons,  who  joined  his 
French  queen,  Isabella,  in  dethroning  him.  He  was  after- 
wards murdered  by  the  queen's  orders. 

387.  His  son,  Edward  III.  (A.  D.  1327- 1377),  was  a 
warlike  and  powerful  king.  The  very  slight  claim,  which 
he  had  inherited  from  his  mother,  to  the  crown  of  France, 
tempted  him  to  invade   that  country;    and  he 

gained  a  decisive  victory  over  king  Philip  VI. 
at  Cre'cy.  His  eldest  son,  a  youth  of  16  years,  greatly 
distinguished  himself  in  the  batde.  Finding  among  the 
slain  the  body  of  the  blind  old  king  of  Bohemia,  Prince 
Edward  adopted  his  motto,  "I  serve,"  and  the  black  armor, 
from  which  he  became  known  as  the  ''Black  Prince." 

388.  King  Edward  followed  up  his  victory  by  the  siege 
and  capture  of  Calais,  which  remained  for  200  years  an 
English  port,  valuable  for  purposes  of  trade,  and  as  an 
ever  open  door  to  France.  It  is  said  that  when  Calais 
had  been  starved  into  surrender.  King  Edward  demanded 
the  lives  of  six  chief  citizens  as  a  ransom  for  the  rest. 
Freely  offering  themselves,  six  of  the  princii)al 

men  repaired   to   his   camp,  with  ropes  around  '  '^'''' 

their  necks,  bearing  the  keys  of  the  city,  and  were  ordered 
to  execution.  But  Queen  Philip'pa  had  just  arrived  from 
England  to  render  account  of  her  own  successful  manage- 
ment of  the  war  with  the  Scots.  She  fell  on  her  knees 
and  begged,  as  her  reward,  the  lives  of  these  brave  men. 
The  king  could  not  refuse  her;  and,  after  entertaining 
them  most  generously,  she  sent  them  back  to  their  families 
loaded  with  gifts.  (§§477,   502). 

389.  In  a  subsequent  war,  King  John  was  defeated  and 
made   prisoner,  at   Poitiers,  A.  D.   1356,  by  a  far  inferior 


228  MEDIEVAL   HISTORY. 

force  under  the  Black  Prince.  By  the  Treaty  of  Bretigny  he 
engaged  to  pay  an  immense  sum  of  money  for  his  ransom; 
but  the  king  of  England  at  the  same  time  renounced  his 
claims  to  the  French  crown,  with  all  the  fiefs  of  William 
and  Geoffrey  (§350).  He  kept  Aquitaine,  which  was  made 
an  almost  independent  sovereignty  for  Prince  Edward. 

390.  The  Black  Prince  died  a  year  before  his  father; 
and  his  son,  Richard  II.,  became  king  in  1377.  The  wars 
had  brought  intolerable  suffering  to  the  poor  people  of  both 
countries;  and  peasant  insurrections,  called  in  France  the 
Jacquerie,  in   England,  Wat   Tyler's   rebellion,  alarmed  the 

ruling  classes.  One  hundred  thousand  armed 
"  ^^  ''  insurgents  marched  upon  London,  plundering 
and  murdering  those  who  opposed  them.  Richard  met 
the  mob  with  great  coolness,  and  disarmed  their  rage  by 
promising  all  they  asked.  He  did,  indeed,  try  to  secure 
freedom  for  the  serfs;  but,  in  so  doing,  he  offended  the 
nobles,  without  gaining  any  thing  for  the  people.  Richard 
was  unable  to  restrain  the  ambition  of  his  three  uncles, 
who  quarreled  for  the  chief  power;  and  he  made  an 
enemy  of  his  cousin,  Henry  of  Lancaster.  Returning  from 
exile  upon  his  father's  death,  Henry  was  joined  by  a  great 
army,  including  most  of  the  royal  forces.  With  consent 
of  parliament  he  assumed  the  crown,  and  put  Richard  in 
prison,  where  he  is  supposed  to  have  died,   A.  D.    1400. 

391.  During  this  reign,  Wic'liffe  preached  against  the 
abuses  which  had  crept  into  the  church.  Though  among 
the  most  learned  of  Oxford  doctors,  he  spoke  and  wrote 
a  language  which  the  poor  people  could  understand.  His 
greatest  work  was  a  translation  of  the  Bible  into  their 
common  tongue.  He  was  bitterly  opposed,  but  he  had  a 
l^owerful  friend  in  John  of  Gaunt,  the  father  of  Henry  of 
Lancaster.  After  his  death,  his  bones  were  burned  as  those 
of  a  heretic,  and  his  ashes  were  thrown  into  the  Avon;  but 
his  teachings  were  already  the  property  of  the  world  (p.  245). 


THE  MAID   OF  ORLEANS.  229 

392.  The  House  of  Lancaster.  —  Henry  IV.  (A.  D. 
J399-1413),  tried  to  please  the  clergy  by  persecuting  the 
Lollards,  or  followers  of  WiclifTe;  but  the  insecurity  of  his 
title  was  shown  by  three  formidable  insurrections.  His 
son,  Henry  V.  (A.  D.  1 413 -1422),  was  more  popular. 
Already  as  prince  he  had  contributed  much  to  the  victory 
at  Shrewsbury,  by  which  the  rebellion  of  the  Percies  was 
overthrown;  but  in  times  of  peace  he  seemed  wholly  given 
up  to  gay  and  dissolute  company.  Some  have  thought 
that  this  was  merely  an  artifice  to  disarm  his  father's 
suspicion;  for  Henry  IV.  was  haunted  by  the  fear  that  his 
son  might  treat  him  as  he  himself  had  treated  Richard. 

393.  Upon  the  king's  death,  however,  Henry  V.  dis- 
missed all  his  wild  companions,  called  about  him  his 
father's  best  counselors,  and  bestowed  especial  favor  upon 
one  who  had  been  honest  enough  to  rebuke  his  own 
misconduct.  He  soon  afterwards  prepared  for  war  with 
France,^  whose  wretched  condition,  under  a  crazy  king,  a 
wicked  queen,  and  recklessly  selfish  nobles,  made  conquest 
seem  an  easy  matter.    At  the  field  of  Agincourt, 

Henry's  brave  yeomanry  gained  a  victory  over  '  '^'^' 

four  times  their  number  of  French.  The  treaty  of  Troyes 
made  Henry  regent  of  France  during  the  life  of  Charles 
VI.,  whose  daughter  he  was  to  marry,  and  upon  whose 
death  he  was  to  succeed  to  the  crown.  Two  years  later, 
Henry  V.  and  his  infant  son  entered  Paris  in  triumph. 
But  the  triumph  did  not  last  long.  The  two 
kings  died  in  one  year,  and  the  crowns  of 
France  and  England  rested  upon  the  baby  brow  of  Henry 
VI.,  who  during  his  life-time  of  50  years  never  became, 
in  intellect,  more  than  a  feeble  child.  §§409,  410. 

394.  For  six  years  the  English  ruled  France,  the  heir 
to  the  crown  having  only  a  few  cities  south  of  the  Loire. 
In  1428  came  a  wonderful  change  of  fortune.  Jo'an  of 
Arc,    a   simple    peasant   girl,  believed    herself  inspired    of 


230  MEDIEVAL   HISTORY. 

heaven  to  rescue  France.  With  her  consecrated  banner 
she  appeared  at  the  head  of  the  dauphin's  army,  and 
excited  such  hopes  in  the  French,  or  such  terror  in  the 
English,  that  the  latter  broke  up  their  camp  and  withdrew 
from  Orleans,  which  they  had  nearly  taken.  She  then 
conducted  the  dauphin  to  Rheims,  where  he 
■  ''^^^'  was  crowned;  and  this  event  did  much  to  turn 
the  hearts  of  the  French  toward  their  native  king.  To 
the  disgrace  of  Charles  VII.  and  the  English  chiefs,  the 
''Maid  of  Orleans,"  having  been  taken  prisoner,  was  con- 
demned and  burnt  as  a  witch. 

395.  From  amidst  the  smoke  and  flame  of  her  execution, 
Joan  declared  that  God's  vengeance  would  pursue  the 
English  into  their  own  land.  Her  prophecy  was  fulfilled. 
Step  by  step  they  were  driven  from  all  their  conquests  in 
France;  while  the  incapacity  of  their  king  and  the  quarrels 
of  his  ministers  left  England  a  prey  to  the  worst  disorders. 
Henry  married  Margaret  of  Anjou,  a  brave  and  accom- 
plished princess,  but  her  haughty  spirit  offended  a  pow- 
erful party  among  the  English  nobles. 

396.  The  Duke  of  York  now  asserted  his  claim  as  a  de- 
scendant of  Edward  III.  by  an  elder  line  than  the  king 
(see  Table,  p,  434).  Thence  arose  the  "Wars  of  the 
Roses,"  so  called  because  the  Yorkists  wore  a  white  rose, 
and  the  Lancastrians  a  red  one  as  their  badge.  The  Duke 
of  York  was  slain  in  the  battle  of  Wakefield;  but  his 
claim  to  the  crown  was  inherited  by  his  eldest  son,  who, 
in  1 46 1,  was  acknowledged  as  King  Edward  IV.  Henry 
VI.  found  a  more  peaceful  abode  in  the  Tower. 

397.  House  of  York.  —  Among  the  foremost  figures 
of  that  time  is  the  Earl  of  Warwick,  who  was  called  the 
''Kingmaker."  His  estates  covered  many  miles  of  territory; 
his  armed  followers  were  a  mighty  host;  and  victory  leaned 
to  either  side  where  he  declared  himself.  He  aided  largely 
in  the  elevation  of  the   House  of  York,   but,  being  griev- 


THE   WARS  OF   THE  ROSES,  231 

ously  oflTended  by  Edward  IV.,  he  transferred  his  allegiance 
to  Henry  VI.,  whom  he  released  from  prison,  while  Edward 
fled  beyond  the  sea.  But  Edward  IV.  returned,  and  the 
great  earl  was  slain  at  Barnet.  Young  Edward  of  Lan- 
caster was  defeated  and  basely  murdered  at 
Tewkesbury,  and  his  unhappy  father   died  a  '*'' 

few  days  later  in  prison.  The  reign  of  Edward  IV.  (A.  D. 
1461-1483)  is  signalized  by  the  introduction  of  printing 
into  England  by  William  Caxton,«  in  1474. 

398.  Edward  V.  was  but  thirteen  years  old  at  his  father's 
death.  His  uncle  Richard,  Duke  of  Gloucester,  having 
gained  possession  of  the  young  king  and  his  brother,  caused 
them  to  be  murdered  in  the  Tower,  and  made  himself 
King  Richard  III.  Richard  was,  undoubtedly,  the  ablest 
of  his  family;    and   though  he   had   *' waded 

1  111  1  •,•,•%  1     1      A.  D.  1483-1485. 

through    slaughter    to    a    throne,      he    ruled 
wisely   and   well.      But   the    nobles  were    horrified   by  his 
crimes,    and    called    for    Henry   Tu'dor,    a    descendant    of 
the    House    of   Lancaster,  who    had    been    living    in   exile 
(see  Table  p.   433). 

399.  Henry  landed  in  England  with  a  small  army,  which 
was  joined  by  half  of  Richard's  forces,  and, 

in  the  Battle  of  Bosworth,  gained  a  complete 

victory.      King  Richard  was  slain;   his  crown,  found  upon 

a  thorn-bush,  was  placed   on   the  head  of  the  conqueror, 

who  was  hailed  with  the  cry,  ' '  God  save  King  Henry  the 

Seventh!" 

The  Wars  of  the  Roses  had  lasted  30  years.  By  exter- 
minating many  noble  families,  they  had  undermined  the 
feudal  system,  which,  in  England,  may  be  said  to  have 
ended  with  the  Plantagenets.  With  the  accession  of  the 
Tudors,  modern  history  begins. 

Read  Green's  "Short  History,"  Chapter  v,  and  Chapter  vi,  Sec- 
tions 1-3.  For  illustration,  read  Shakespeare's  Henry  IV.,  V.,  VI., 
and  Richard  III. ;   and  Bulwer's  "  Last  of  the  Barons." 


232  medialVal  history. 


NOTES. 

1.  These  were  Normandy  and  Guienne  (the  more  modern  name  for 
Aquitaine);  Anjou,  Maine,  Touraine,  and  Poitou. 

Normandy  was  inherited  from  his  maternal  grandfather,  King  Henry 
the  Fii'st;  Anjou,  Maine,  and  Touraine  from  his  fatlier,  Geoffrey  Planta- 
genet;  Guienne  and  Poitou  were  the  dowry  of  liis  wife,  Eleanor  of 
Aquitaine.  It  must  be  remembered  that  France  was  then  bounded  on 
the  east  by  the  rivers  Meuse  and  Rhone,  and  was  less  extensive,  both 
to  the  north  and  to  the  south,  than  at  present.    See  1 402. 

"  Previous  to  her  marriage  with  Henry  II.  of  England,  Eleanor  of 
Aquitaine  had  been  tiie  wife  of  Louis  VII.  of  France  (HOO),  a  man 
greatly  inferior  to  herself  in  intellect,  taste,  and  force  of  character,  but 
earnestly  pious,  and  of  grave  and  decorous  manners.  The  young  south- 
ern princess  fretted  and  struggled  against  the  change  from  the  homage 
and  flattery  of  the  poetical  knights  of  her  native  court  to  the  severity 
of  principle  and  action  exhibited  by  Louis,  the  pupil  of  the  great  Abbot 
Suger,  and  the  disciple  of  the  I'igid  Cistercian,  St.  Bernard.  Yet,  for  a 
time  she  yielded  to  the  superior  influences  which  surrounded  her. 
When  Bernard  preached  at  Vezelay  (§5^7),  rousing  the  nations  of  Europe 
to  undertake  a  new  Crusade,  Eleanor  heard  and  was  excited  by  his  el- 
oquence. Louis  VII,  undertook  to  conduct  the  holy  war,  and  Eleanor 
accompanied  him,  but  in  Palestine  she  showed  such  levity  of  conduct 
that  Louis,  on  his  return  home,  determined  to  obtain  a  divorce."—^. 
M.  Sewell. 

2.  In  the  first  year  of  Henry's  reign,  Becket  was  raised  to  the  dignity 
of  chancellor,  having  won  the  king's  favor  by  his  great  abilities  and 
pleasing  accomplishments. 

"The  private  intercourse  of  the  sovereign  with  his  minister  was  on 
the  most  intimate  footing.  When  serious  business  was  over,  says  Fitz 
Stephen,  they  played  together  like  boys  of  the  same  age. 

"They  were  companions  in  all  manner  of  amusements;  and  often, 
when  the  chancellor  was  at  dinner,  entertaining,  as  his  custom  was,  a 
splendid  party  of  nobles  and  knights,  the  king,  in  returning  from  the 
chase,  would  walk  in  without  ceremony,  and  would  either  drink  a  cup 
and  begone,  or  leap  over  the  table  and  seat  himself  as  a  guest.    .    .    . 

"In  procuring  the  chancellor's  elevation  to  the  primacy,  Henry  no 
doubt  supposed  that  he  should  continue  to  find  him  a  ready  instru- 
ment of  his  will,  especially  in  matters  relating  to  the  church.  His  sur- 
prise, therefore,  was  great  at  receiving  from  the  new  archbishop  a  re- 
quest that  he  would  provide  himself  with  another  chancellor.  Not  a 
word  had  Becket  breathed  as  to  retiring  from  the  king's  service  until, 
by  Henry's  earnest  exertion,  he  had  been  seated  on  the  throne  of  Can- 
terbury. But  Becket  was  no  longer  the  servant  of  the  Crown,  but  purely 
the  representative  of  the  Church;  he  was  independent  of  the  king;  he 
might  become  his  antagonist,  and  this  seemed  very  like  a  preparation 
for  coming  out  as  such."— T.  C.  Robertson,  Life  oj  Becket. 

The  main  point  of  opposition  was  in  the  claim  of  the  Church  to  judge 
all  crimes  committed  by  persons  in  her  employ,  independently  of  the  sec- 
ular courts.  In  1164,  Henry  summoned  a  great  council  of  bishops  and  no- 
bles at  his  palace  of  Clarendon.  With  their  consent  an  important  charter, 
called  "The  Constitutions  of  Clarendon,"  was  given  to  the  people,  requir- 
ing even  clerical  criminals  to  be  judged  by  the  civil  laws.  Becket,  after 
violent  resistance,  swore  to  support  the  Constitutions;  but  afterwards 
professed  to  be  deeply  penitent  for  his  sin  in  so  doing.  He  fled  to  France, 
where  King  Louis,  having  many  causes  for  jealousy  against  Henry, 
gladly  received  him  with  the  honors  due  to  a  saint  and  a  martyr.  Dui- 
ing  his  two  years'  absence,  the  king's  eldest  son  was  crowned  as  asso- 
ciate-monarch by  the  Archbishop  of  York,  though  that  ceremony  could 
only  be  lawfully  performed  by  the  primate.  King  Henry,  having  after- 
wards passed  over  to  Normandy,  Becket  returned  to  England  and  was 
received  by  clergy  and  people  with  shouts  of  welcome.  When  Henry 
heard  of  his  triumphal  entrance  into  Rochester  and  Southwark,  he  ex- 
claimed, "Is  there  none  of  all  my  servants  who  will  rid  me  of  this  pes- 
tilent priest?  "  Four  gentlemen  of  his  household  understood  these  words 
as  intimating  a  desire  for  Becket's  death ;  and,  hastening  to  England,  they 
murdered  the  archbishop  within  his  own  cathedral  at  Canterbury.    His 


NOTES,  233 


tomb  was  long  afterwards  revered  as  the  shrine  of  a  martyr,  and,  in  a 
single  year,  100,000  pilgrims  are  said  to  have  flocked  thither  from  all 
piu^  of  Christondmn. 

3.  At  Runnimede,  on  the  Thnincs,  the  two  iwrtlos  met  In  conference; 
and  the  result  of  the  meeting  w«s  the  kind's  slmnlnjj  Mugna  Vharta. 
the  foundation  of  KnKliKh  constitutional  liberty.  ClerRy,  baronH,  and 
people  were  alike  secured  In  their  rights  of  person  and  property.  Taxes 
were  not  to  be  Icvietl  without  the  consent  of  the  Great  (Council.  No 
person  should  be  seized  or  imnrisoned,  or  outlawed  or  exiled,  or  in  anv 
way  brought  to  ruin  save  by  lawful  judgment  of  his  p«»ers.  "  We  will 
sell  to  no  man,  we  will  not  deny  or  delay  to  any  man,  Justice  or  right." 
The  poor  nian,  even  if  convicted  of  crime,  could  not  be  deprived  of  his 
tiMicnient,  the  merchant  of  his  gootls,  or  the  peasant  or  his  wagon. 
Tweiily-four  barons  were  charged  with  enforcing  upon  the  king  the 
fulilllnu'Mt  of  his  solemn  oath.  "They  have  given  me  four-and-twenty 
over-kings!"  cried  John,  in  a  rage,  as  he  threw  himself  on  the  fl(K)r  and 
gnawed  like  a  wild  beast  at  whatever  came  within  his  reach .—//t»<.  0/ 
l^xg.  pp.  7!»-Sl. 

4.  King  Henry's  extortions  and  his  slavery  to  foreign  favorites  dis- 
gusted his  brave  barons.  Several  times  he  was  made  to  renew  tlie  Great 
('barter,  and  to  pronounce  the  most  direful  curses  upon  whomsoever 
should  dare  to  infringe  it;  but  scarcely  had  the  awfid  words  died  away 
among  the  arches  of  Westminster  Hall,  when  every  promise  was  broken. 
Chief  of  the  French  courtiers  was  Simon  de  Montt()rt,  whom  the  king 
had  made  Earl  of  I^eicester,  and  honored  with  the  liand  of  his  own  sis- 
ter.   But,  unlike  his  countrymen.  Earl  Simon  faithfully  served  the  peo- 

t)le  among  whom  he  dwelt,  and  wjis  rewarded  by  their  love.  ...  In 
257,  a  terrible  famine  visited  England.  King  Richard  (brother  of  Henry 
III.— crowned  as  king  of  the  Romans  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  1256;  ll^\  365), 
sent  over  a  supply  of  corn  from  Germany  for  the  relief  of  the  people: 
but  King  Henry  seized  and  sold  it  for  his  own  advantage.  This  enraged 
the  barons,  who  met  in  arms  at  Oxford,  and  insisted  upon  a  Councilof 
Regency,  to  be  chosen,  half  by  the  king,  and  half  by  themselves.  Par- 
liament was  ordered  to  meet  three  times  every  year,  whether  summoned 
by  the  king  or  not,  and  "  twelve  honest  men  "  were  to  represent  the  com- 
monalty.   .    .    . 

After  the  victory  at  Lewes,  In  which  the  king  and  his  son  were  made 
prisoners,  the  Earl  of  Leicester,  now  really  at  the  head  of  the  realm, 
summoned  a  parliament  in  the  king's  name,  to  be  composed  of  two 
citizens  from  each  borough,  and  two  knights  from  each  shire,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  bishops  and  nobles.  Tills  was  a  great  event,  for  It  was  the 
Jirst  meeting  of  the  English  Commons  according  to  their  present  con- 
stitution.—/d.,  pp.  84,  85. 

5.  The  French  king,  Charles  V.,  had  broken  the  Peace  of  Bretigny 
(J 389)  not  long  after  it  was  signed;  and, before  the  death  of  Edward  III., 
ail  Aqultaine,  excepting  the  cities  of  Bordeaux  and  Bayonne,  had  been 
lost  to  the  English.  The  great  nobles  preferred  to  be  vassals  of  France, 
but  the  cities  clung  to  English  rule,  which  gave  them  greater  freedom 
and  commercial  advantages.  The  treaty  thus  broken  on  the  French 
side,  the  English  sovereigns  resumed  the  title  of  Kings  of  France,  which 
they  never  cea.sed  to  bear  until  the  beginning  of  the  present  century, 
though  no  serious  attempt  at  conquest  was  ever  made  after  the  time  or 
Henry  the  Sixth. 

6.  'William  Caxton  was  a  successful  merchant  in  London,  when 
he  was  commis-sioned  by  Edward  IV.,  In  1461,  to  negotiate  a  commercial 
treaty  with  Philip  the  Good,  Duke  of  Burgundy.  Three  years  later  the 
Duke  Wius  succeeded  by  his  son,  Charles  tbe  Bold,  who,  In  1468,  married 
Mariraret  of  York,  sister  of  the  King  of  England.  This  lady  appointed 
Caxton  to  be  a  member  of  her  court,  and  employed  him  In  translating 
a  history  of  Troy  from  French  Into  English.  Having  learned  the  new 
art  of  printing  at  Cologne,  Caxton  printed  his  translation  about  1474— 
the  first  book  ever  printed  in  the  English  language.  Subsequently,  he 
carried  his  press  to  London.  Though  he  ac(julred  the  art  in  his  sixtieth 
year,  and  died  In  his  elghtletb,  slxty-tlve  books— of  many  of  whi<rh  he 
was  author  or  translator  as  well  as  printer— l>ear  witness  to  the  indus- 
try and  zeal  of  this  father  of  English  publishers. 


CHAPTER   X. 


HOUSE    OF   CAPET    IN    FRANCE. 


GUIS  VI.  (A.  D.  1108-1137) 
gave  the  first  communal  privi- 
leges to  French  towns  —  in  this 
and  other  ways  lessening  the 
power  of  his  great  vassals  and 
raising  up  a  class  of  industri- 
ous citizens  between  nobles  and 
serfs.  His  son,  Louis  VII. 
(1137  — 1180),  granted  many 
more  of  these  charters,  and 
founded  new  cities  for  the  re- 
ception of  serfs  who  escaped 
from  their  masters.  By  marry- 
ing the  heiress  of  Aquitaine, 
Louis  annexed  that  great  terri- 
Map  7),  but  the  misconduct  of 
the  queen  led  him  to  part  with  her  and  her  lands,  which 
were  soon  afterward  transferred  to  Henry  II.  of  England 
(§  381).  A  life-long  rivalry  grew  from  this.  Louis  not 
only  sheltered  the  exiled  archbishop  Becket  (§  382),  but 
even  aided  Queen  El'eanor  and  her  sons  in  their  rebellion 
against  Henry,  (see  note,  p.    232). 

401.  Philip  II.  Augustus  (A.  D.  1 180- 1223)  curbed 
the  great  nobles  by  his  wise  management.  In  his  reign 
Pope  Innocent  III.  declared  a  crusade  against  Ray'mond, 
Count  of  Toulouse,  for  having  sheltered  his  own  subjects, 
the  Albigenses,  whose  religious  belief  differed  from  that 
of  the  Roman  Church.  Even  their  enemies  admitted  that 
(234) 


Louis  XI.  and  his  Barber. 

tory  to   the   crown   (see 


REIGN  OF  SAINT  LOUIS.  235 


their  religion  made  them  obedient  to  all  just  laws,  and 
that  they  were  the  most  industrious,  orderly,  and  valuable 
members  of  any  community.  The  king  took  little  notice 
of  the  contest;  but  many  of  his  vassals,  foremost  of  whom 
was  Simon  de  Montfort,  father  of  the  great  English  earl 
of  Leicester  (^^384),  hastened  to  join  the  crusade. 

402.  The  war  raged  more  than  twenty  years.  Towns, 
villages,  and  fertile  fields — the  most  prosperous  region  in 
Europe  —  were  laid  waste;  the  songs  of  the  troubadours 
(^^427)  ceased;  and  their  very  language  was  smitten  with 
decay.  The  war  went  on,  through  the  short  reign  of 
Louis  Vin.  (1223- 1226),  and  ended  in  that  of  his  son, 
by  the  addition  of  all  Count  Raymond's  dominions,  either 
by  direct  surrender  or  by  marriage,  to  the  royal  family. 
France  thus  became  a  greater  maritime  power;  for  before 
this  it  had  not  reached  the   Mediterranean. 

403.  The  crusades  of  the  good  King  Louis  IX.  (A.  D. 
1226- 1270)  have  been  mentioned  (§§  354,  355).  His 
reign  in  France  was  marked  by  a  cessation  of  feudal  vio- 
lence; the  nobles  no  longer  had  power  of  life  and  death 
over  their  serfs;  but  uniform  laws  were  enforced  through- 
out the  kingdom.  On  certain  days  all  men  might  bring 
their  complaints  to  the  king,^  who  sat  under  a  tree  in 
the  forest  of  Vincennes,  ready  to  do  justice  and  redress 
wrongs,  without  the  delay  incident  to  the  best  of  courts. 
Not  content  with  doing  justly  himself,  Louis  restored  all 
lands  that  had  been  wrongfully  seized  by  his  father  and 
grandfather.  Even  foreign  princes  sometimes  referred  their 
causes  to  him;  in  England  he  helped  to  reconcile  Henry 
HL  with  his  barons  (§  384). 

404.  Philip  HL  inherited  a  great  tract  of  land,  now  in 
the  south  of  France,  which  brought  him  in  contact  with 
the  neighboring  princes  of  Spain  and  Italy.  It  happened 
that  his  uncle,  Charles  of  Anjou,  was  engaged  in  a  fierce 
rivalry  with    the    king   of  Aragon    for    the    possession    of 


236  MEDIAiVAL   HISTORY. 

Sicily;  and  this  led  to  the  first  long  foreign  war  in  which 
France  was  ever  engaged.  It  was  during  this  war  that 
the  Sicilian  Vespers  occurred  (§366).  Philip  IV.  (A.  D. 
1285- 1314)  is  called  the  Fair,  but  the  term  applies  to  his 
person,  and  not  to  his  conduct.  His  ambitious  schemes 
made  him  always  in  want  of  money,  which  he  extorted 
in  turn  from  Jews,  abbots,  Flemish  merchants,  and,  finally, 
from  the  Knights  Templars^  (§  360).  Pope  Clement  V., 
having  removed  his  court  from  Rome  to  Avignon,  was 
Philip's  obedient  tool.  By  their  joint  orders  the  Grand 
Master,  Jacques  de  Mo'lay,  was  burnt  to  death.  The 
order  of  Templars  was  dissolved  in  France,  and,  though 
their  lands  and  fortresses  were  given  to  the  Knights  of 
St.  John,  their  immense  wealth  in  gold  went  into  the 
coffers  of  the  king. 

405.  Philip's  three  sons,  Louis  X.,  Philip  V.,  and 
Charles  IV.,  all  succeeded  him  within  fourteen  years, 
A.  D.  13 14- 1328.  The  infant  son  of  Louis  died  when 
only    four    days    old.      His    brothers    left    only   daughters. 

The  ancient  custom^  of  the   Franks  had   lately 

A.     D.    I316.  ,  -  -  ...  r  1 

been  made  a  law,  excludmg  women  from  the 
throne.  The  crown,  therefore,  passed  to  Philip  of  Valois 
(A.   D.    1328- 1350),  a  grandson  of  Philip  III. 

406.  House  of  Valois.  —  The  rival  claims  of  Edward 
III.,^  the  battles  of  Crecy  and  Poitiers,  and  the  fall  of 
Calais   have    already  been    described   (§§387-389).      The 

wars  were  interrupted  by  the  Black  Death, 
■  ^^^  ^^^^'  a  frightful  pestilence,  which,  sweeping  over 
Europe,  destroyed,  in  three  years,  nearly  half  the  popu- 
lation. The  truce  gave  leisure  to  thousands  of  hireling 
soldiers,  who  roamed  over  the  country,  robbing  and  mur- 
dering at  their  will.  Even  the  pope  had  to  ransom  him- 
self with  40,000  crowns.  The  poor  peasants,  driven  to 
desperation  by  famine,  pestilence,  and  manifold  oppres- 
sions, turned  upon   their    masters    and,   in    some    instances, 


FRANCE   UNDER   CHARLES    VI.  237 

demolished  castles  and  massacred  their  inhabitants.  Their 
ignorant  warfare  was,  of  course,  speedily  put  down,  and 
they  were  hunted  to  death  like  wild  beasts. 

407.  King  John  (A.  D.  1350- 1364)  was  four  years  a 
prisoner,  while,  in  addition  to  other  miseries,  Charles  the 
Bad  of  Navarre,  another  claimant  to  the  French  crown, 
made  much  mischief  in  the  kingdom.  Charles  V.  (1364- 
1380)  was  called  the  Wisc\  —  \\\^  w  isdoni  had  been  learned 
in  a  hard  school.  Both  as  regent  during  his  father's 
captivity,  and  afterwards  as  king,  he  managed  so  wisely 
that,  though  he  seldom  took  the  field  in  person,  his  great 
captains^  drove  the  English  from  all  their  conquests  (§389). 

408.  The  kingdoms  of  England  and  France  were  placed, 
after  his  death,  in  very  similar  circumstances:  Richard  II., 
in  the  one  (§390),  and  Charles  VI.  (A.  D.  1380-1422), 
in  the  other,  were  minors — each  at  the  mercy  of  three 
powerful  uncles,*  who  used  the  public  treasures  to  help  their 
own  ambition.  In  Naples,  the  House  of  Anjou  (§  404) 
had  ended  in  Queen  Joan'na,  who,  having  ho 
children,  adopted  Louis,  uncle  of  Charles  VI.,  "  '  ^^  ^' 
as  her  heir.  This  adoption  cost  France  more  than  a  hun- 
dred years  of  war.  The  Duke  of  Anjou,  seizing  all  the 
gold  he  could  lay  his  hands  on,  marched  into  Italy,  where 
he  and  most  of  his  army  died  of  the  plague  (note  6,  p.  240). 

409.  The  princes  who  stayed  at  home,  made  still  more 
trouble.  The  Duke  of  Burgundy^  married  the  heiress  of 
Flanders,  and  thus  became  richer  than  any  sovereign 
prince  in  Europe.  His  son  murdered  his  cousin,  the  duke 
of  Orleans,  and,  a  few  years  later,  was  himself  murdered 
by  a  servant  of  his  victim.  Believing  that  the  dauphin, 
who  saw  the  crime,  had  planned,  or  at  least  permitted  it, 
the  new  duke  of  Burgundy  joined  the  English  who  had 
invaded  the  country  (§393).  The  king  had  now  become 
a  hopeless  maniac.  Henry  V.,  of  England,  married  his 
daughter,  and  was  proclaimed  regent  of  France.     But  the 


238  MEDIMVAL   HISTORY. 

crazy  king  and  his  son-in-law  died  within  eight  weeks  of 
each  other,  A.  D.   1422. 

410.  The  infant  son  of  Henry  and  Catherine  of  France 
was  crowned  at  Paris,  while  the  true  heir  to  the  crown 
was  so  poor  that  he  is  said  to  have  been  arrested  by  a 
shoemaker,  whose  bill  he  could  not  pay.  His  fortunes 
were  retrieved  by  the  interposition  of  Joan  of  Arc^(§  394). 
Dissensions  among  the  English  saved  France.  In  spite 
of  his  own  indolence,  Charles  VH.  (A.  D.  1422-1461) 
regained  all  that  himself  and  his  father  had  lost,  and 
only  Calais  remained  to  the  English  of  all  their  conquests 
in   France. 

411.  Louis  XI.  (A.  D.  1461-1483),  son  of  Charles 
VII.,  was  a  far  abler  man  than  his  father,  but  his  fals- 
ity of  character  made  him  one  of  the  most  contemptible 
figures  in  history.  While  dauphin,®  having  incurred  his 
father's  displeasure,  he  took  refuge  with  Philip  the  Good, 
duke  of  Burgundy,  who  received  him  with  great  gener- 
osity. Louis  proved  his  gratitude  by  poisoning  the  mind 
of  the  duke's  only  son  with  unfiHal  suspicions,  and  tam- 
pering with  his  servants.  He  and  Charles  of  Burgundy 
were  ever  afterwards   enemies  and  rivals. 

412.  The  great  effort  of  Louis'  reign,  was  to  exalt  the 
power  of  the  crown  by  weakening  the  Church  and  the 
nobles.  His  great  vassals  joined  against  him  in  a  "League 
of  the  Public  Weal,"  which  had,  at  one  time,  100,000 
men  on  foot.  Louis  dissolved  this  force  more  by  gold 
than  steel.  He  stirred  up  rebellions  in  the  Flemish  cities, 
and  once  was  caught  in  the  trap  which  he  had  set, 
being  imprisoned,  by  Charles,  in  the  tower  of  Peronne. 

413.  Charles  the  Bold,  as  he  is  called,  having  made 
himself  master  of  all  the  Netherlands,  by  purchase  or 
inheritance,  wished  to  revive  the  "Middle  Kingdom"  of 
Lothaire  (see  Map  No.  7,  and  §  314,  note).  The  em- 
peror,  Frederic   III.,   promised  to   crown  him   at  Treves, 


LAST  I\IYS   OF  LOUIS  XI.  239 


but,  changing  his  mind,  stole  away  in  the  night,  leaving 
Charles  with  his  unconsecrated  crown.  Louis  stirred  the 
Swiss  to  attack  Charles,  who  was  defeated  by 
'  *^'^"  them  at  Granson  and  Morat,  and  shortly  after- 
wards slain  at  Nancy,  in  a  battle  with  the  duke  of  Lor- 
raine. The  king  of  France  seized  his  duchy  of  Burgundy; 
but  the  rich  inheritance  of  the  Netherlands  passed,  with 
the  hand  of  the  young  duchess  Mary,  to  Maximil'ian  of 
Austria  (§424). 

414.  Louis  suffered  the  natural  consequences  of  a  life 
of  fraud  in  the  wretched  suspicions  which  haunted  his 
last  years.  He  shut  himself  in  a  lonely  castle  and  ordered 
his  archers  to  shoot  at  every  living  thing  that  approached. 
Even  his  own  children  were  excluded;  his  constant  com- 
panions were  Oliver  le  Daim,  barber  and  hangman,  and 
James  Coettier,  astrologer  and  physician.  The  latter  gov- 
erned Louis  through  his  superstition  by  declaring  that  his 
own  death  would  shortly  precede  that  of  the  king.  Never 
was  man's  health  more  cared  for  than  that  of  this  wily 
doctor.  But  at  length  the  wretched  king  died,  leaving 
his  only  son,  at  the  age  of  fourteen,  deformed  in  body 
and  feeble  in  mind.  The  reign  of  Charles  VI IL  (A.  D. 
1 483 -1 498)  belongs,  properly,  to  modern  history. 

Point  out,  on  Maps  No.  7  and  11,  Granson,  Morat,  Crecy,  Poitiers, 
Calais.  The  duchy  of  Burgundy.  The  Netherlands  (named,  §512, 
note ) . 

Read  Michelet's  History  of  France  ;  Kirk's  Charles  the  Bold ; 
Scott's  Quentin  Durward  and  Anne  of  Geierstein  ;  De  Quincey's  Joan 
of  Arc,  in  his  Miscellaneous  Essays ;  and  Harriet  Parr's  Life  and 
Death  of  Jeanne  d'Arc. 

NOTES. 

L  This  was  an  advantage  under  so  good  a  king,  but  it  was  dangerous, 
because  it  increased  the  royal  prerogative,  wtiicn  was  sure  to  pass  into 
less  worthy  bands  than  his.  Tlie  English  institutions,  established  during 
the  same  years,  were  l)etter,  for  they  lodged  power  where  a  greater 
numt)er  could  be  held  responsible  for  the  right  use  of  it  (see  ?.'JH4,  and 
note).  The  policy  begun  by  the  justice  of  St.  Louis  was  continued  by 
the  ambition  of  his  successors,  and  the  102  years  dating  from  the  com- 


240  MEDIAEVAL  HISTORY. 


inencement  of  his  reign  are  called  by  Sismondi  the  Age  of  the  Lawyers — 
a  century  in  which  the  legal  powers  of  the  crown  were  established 
above  the  claims  of  the  feudal  chiefs.  Much  that  was  good  in  the 
character  and  reign  of  Louis,  was  due  to  his  mother,  Blanche  of  Castile, 
who  managed  the  kingdom  with  great  ability  and  firmness  during  his 
minority.    Louis  was  only  eleven  years  of  age  at  his  fatlier's  death. 

2.  This  order,  which  had  consisted  at  its  foundation,  about  A.  D.  1124, 
of  only  nine  poor  knights,  now  numbered  15,000  of  the  most  splendid 
chivalry  in  the  world.  Their  fortresses  were  tlie  strongest  in  Europe, 
and  their  Grand  Master  had  the  dignity  of  a  sovereign  prince.  They 
were  independent  of  all  kings,  even  those  in  whose  realms  their  castles 
were  situated;  and  doubtless  there  was  reason  for  objection  to  so  great 
a  power  in  irresponsible  hands.  But  the  manner  of  their  suppression 
was  iniquitous.  They  were  accused  of  Mohammedanism,  atheism,  and 
idolatry,  anj'  one  of  which  charges  must,  of  necessity,  exclude  the  other 
two.  The  witnesses  against  them  were  examined  by  torture,  and  after- 
wards indignantly  denied  the  truth  of  what  they  had  affirmed.  Upon 
this  they  were  sentenced  to  be  burned  as  apostates.  Jacques  de  Molay, 
the  Grand  Master  of  the  Order,  was  immured  seven  years  in  a  dungeon 
until  his  intellect  became  disordered  by  suffering  and  deprivation  of 
light.  His  defense  was  then  refused,  and  he  was  sentenced,  with  two 
companions,  to  the  stake.  From  the  midst  of  the  flames  he  summoned 
the  Pope  and  the  king  of  France  to  meet  him,  ere  long,  at  the  bar  of 
God.    Both  died  within  the  year  1314. 

The  character  of  a  majority  of  Templars  is  probably  not  too  severely 
drawn  in  that  of  Brian  de  Bois  Gull  bert  in  Ivanhoe,  by  Sir  Walter  Scott. 

3.  The  Salic  Law,  so  called  because  it  was  founded  upon  a  custom  of 
the  Salian  Franks  (note,  p.  173),  has  ever  since  prevailed  in  France, 
though  rejected  by  Spain  (§  727),  where  a  branch  of  the  French  House  of 
Bourbon  has  reigned,  with  a  few  years  exception,  since  1713.  The  orig- 
inal Salic  custom,  however,  referred  to  property  and  not  to  dominion. 

4.  Edward  III.  was  a  grandson  of  Philip  IV.,  of  France;  and  he 
affected  to  think  (§387)  that  though  his  mother,  Isabella,  could  not  reign 
herself,  she  could  "transmit  a  right  to  him.  This  reasoning  applied  bet- 
ter, however,  to  Queen  Jane  of  Navarre,  who  was  daughter  of  Louis  X., 
and  to  her  son,  Charles  the  Bad  (§407).  The  right  which  King  Edward 
hoped  to  maintain  was  only  the  right  of  the  strongest;  though  he  was, 
doubtless,  provoked  to  war  by  the  attempts  of  Philip  VI.  to  get  posses- 
sion of  Aquitaine  (§400). 

5.  The  greatest  of  these  leaders  was  Bertrand  Duguesclin,  whom  Hume 
calls  "the  first  consummate  general  that  had  yet  appeared  in  [modern] 
Europe."  Having  no  followers  of  his  own,  he  placed  himself,  accord- 
ing to  the  custom  of  the  time,  at  the  head  of  a  company  of  adventurers, 
and  first  distinguished  himself  in  a  war  for  the  Duchy  of  Brittany,  in 
which  the  kings  of  France  and  England  supported  opposing  claimants. 
Having  thus  attracted  the  attention  of  Charles  V.,  he  was  made  Con- 
stable of  France  (the  highest  military  office  in  the  kingdom)  about  1370. 
His  last  act  was  the  siege  of  a  fortress  in  Languedoc.  The  English  com- 
mander had  promised  conditionally  to  surrender  on  a  certain  day. 
Meanwhile  Duguesclin  died  of  disease,  but  the  besieged  commander 
kept  his  faith,  and,  marching  out  with  his  garrison,  placed  the  keys  on 
the  coffin  of  the  dead  hero. 

6.  These  were  the  dukes  of  Lancaster,  York,  and  Gloucester,  in  En- 
gland; and  of  Anjou,  Berri,  and  Burgundy,  in  France. 

King  Robert  of  Naples,  grandson  of  Charles  of  Anjou  (see  §  366  and 
note),  had  been  succeeded  by  his  granddaughter  Joanna,  who,  at  the 
age  of  sixteen,  married  her  cousin,  Andrew  of  Hungary.  The  boorish 
manners  of  the  king-consort  displeased  the  elegant  court  of  Joanna, 
and  his  assumed  claim  to  govern  in  his  own  right  alarmed  her  Nea- 
politan counselors.  King  Andrew  was  murdered,  A.  D.  1345,  by  the 
adherents,  though  it  may  be  hoped  without  the  consent,  of  his  wife; 
and  his  brother,  the  king  of  Hungary,  avenged  his  death  by  invading  the 
Italian  kingdom  and  expelling  the  queen.  Having  gained  the  Pope's 
favor  by  ceding  Avignon  to  him,  she  was  restored  to  her  kingdom  in 


NOTES.  241 


l.'{52;  hut,  having  no  children,  she,  In  1381,  adopted  the  French  prince 
a.s  her  heir.  Joanna  Imx  been  called  the  Mary  Stuart  (see  I  501)  of  Italy, 
and  some  incidents  of  her  eventful  life  do  Indeed  call  to  mind  the 

Seuttlsh  (lueen. 

7.  This  was  Philip  the  liold,  who,  as  a  boy  of  fourteen  years,  had 
fought  by  his  father's  side  at  Poitiers  (g;«9),  and,  with  him.  had  been 
carrie<l  a  prisoner  to  Kngland.  Ills  bravery  was  rewanle<l  with  the  great 
Duchy  ot  Hurgundy,  wluvse  tlrst  line  of  French  dukes  8CK)n  afterward 
(i;«ll)  expiriMl.  "Thus  commenced  that  famous  line  of  dukes  which 
p!aye<i  so  great  ai  part  in  the  liistory  of  France  during  the  four- 
teenth and  rtfteenth  centuries,  and  by  the  splendor  of  Its  aclilevementH 
and  the  magnirtcence  of  its  patronage  rivaled  the  greatest  dynasties  of 
the  time.  Philip's  marriage  with  Margaret  brought  him  the  countKhips 
of  Burgundy  (tranche  ComtC'),  Flanders,  Artols,  Rethel,  and  Nevers, 
and,  at  a  later  periml,  he  i)urchased  C'harolais  from  the  Count  of  Au- 
vergne.  He  wa.s  succee<lod,  1401,  by  John  the  Fearless,  who  was  a.s«as- 
sinated  on  the  Bridge  of  Montereau,  141J>,  and  left  the  duchy  to  his  son, 
Philip  the  Good.  .  .  .  By  very  (luestlonaible  proceedings  Philip  ob- 
tained possession  of  Ilainault  and  Holland.  Nanuir  was  purchased  in 
1429,  and  the  following  year  Brabant  and  Limburg  also  fell  into  his 
grasp.  In  14;i.j  there  were  yielded  to  him,  by  treaty  with  France,  Macon, 
Auxerre,  Bar-sur-Seine.  and  various  other  towns  in  that  district.  His 
son,  Chiirlcs  the  Bold  (^g  411-413),  followed  in  thesiime  course  of  territo- 
rial aggraiuU/AMUt'ut,  and  even  began  to  aim  at  the  founding  of  a  great 
Uallo  Ik'lgian  kingdom,  but  his  splendid  plans  came  to  an  untimely 
end  with  his  death  at  the  battle  of  Nancy/' 

8.  Joan  d'  Arc  was  born  about  1411,  in  the  little  village  of  Dom- 
Remy,  in  Lorraine,  of  poor  but  excellent  parents.  In  her  childh(XHl  she 
saw  and  heard  many  proofs  of  the  misery  of  her  country,  desolated  as  it 
was,  not  only  by  the  wars  of  the  great  nobles,  but  by  the  ravages  of 
free  companies  of  soldiers,  who,  resi>onsil)lc  to  no  government,  roamed 
over  the  land,  robbing  and  plundering  at  their  will,  or  sold  their  serv- 
ices alternately  to  either  party  which  would  restrain  them  the  least 
and  pay  them  the  most.  Joan  "was  untiring  in  her  efforts  to  relieve 
the  suHerin^s  of  the  poor  about  her,  and  even  sold  lier  bed  and  the 
greater  part  of  her  clothing  in  order  to  procure  them  supplies.  She 
afterwards  stated  that  as  early  as  the  age  of  thirteen  she  received  com- 
mands from  Heaven  to  go  and  liberate  France."  Her  parents  tried  to 
suppress  her  enthusiasm,  but  the  "voices"  and  "visions"  continued  to 

"le  could  no  longer  disobey. 
)reten8ions  with    scorn,  she 


haunt  her,  and,  in  her  eighteenth  year,  she  could  no  longer  disobey. 
Though  the  French    otflcers  treated  her   pretei    ' 

gained  the  favor  of  the  Dauphin,  and  set  forth,  bearing  her  consecrated 
banner  at  the  head  of  her  troop,  for  Orleans,  which  was  then  besieged 
by  the  English,  and  at  the  very  point  of  surrender.  She  first  threw 
herself  into  the  town  with  a  sui)piy  of  much-needed  provisions;  then, 
by  a  succession  of  sorties,  so  confounded  the  besiegers  tliat  they  aban- 
doned the  siege  and  departed.  When  the  second  part  of  her  mission 
was  fulfilled  (§894)  she  salutetl  the  Dauphin  as  king,  and  begged  his  per- 
mis.sion  to  return  to  the  care  of  her  sheep.  But  Charles,  hoping  to  gain 
further  advantage  from  her  presence  with  his  soldiers,  refused  to  let  her 
go.  Her  "  voices  "  now  ceased  to  be  heard ;  and  the  high  spirit  that  had 
sustained  her  seemed  to  fail.  Wounded  and  a  prisoner,  she  pined  in 
her  dungeon  for  the  sunshine  and  green  fields  of  her  native  hamlet. 
Yet,  when  brought  before  her  judges,  she  steadfastly  maintained  the 
integrity  of  her  motives  in  all  that  she  had  done,  and  she  died  declar- 
ing that  her  voices  had  not  deceived  her.  A  secretary  of  the  king  of 
England  exclaimed,  "  We  are  lost,  we  have  burned  a  saint!"  and  even 
her  executioner  was  overwhelmed  with  remorse. 

9.  Charles  V.  was  the  first  king  who  had  borne thetitle  of  Dauphin. 
Dauphiny  ha<i  been  a  part,  tirst  ot  the  kingdom  of  Burgundy  (note,  p. 
141),  and  afterwanls  of  the  empire.  Its  most  important  county  was  the 
Viennais.  pertaining  to  the  ancient  city  of  Vienne  (^2.'>4).  ('ount  Hu- 
bert II.,  having  lost  his  only  son  in  13:6,  ma<le  over  his  lands  to  King 
Philip  VI.  with  the  condition  that  the  privileges  and  independence  of 
his  province  should  be  maintained.  After  the  count's  death,  his  title 
was  always  borne  by  the  eldest  son  of  the  reigning  king. 
Hist.-16. 


CHAPTER  XL 


THF.    EMPIRE    AND    THE    CHURCH. 


HE  liistory  of  Germany  during 
the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth 
centuries  is  a  story  of  turbu- 
lence and  misrule  (see  §  363). 
A  quarrel,  over  the  choice  of 
an  emperor,  occasioned  a  dis- 
tracting civil  war,  A.  D.  13 14- 
1328.  Most  of  the  nobles 
chose  Frederic  of  Austria;^  but 
the  primate  and  the  people  of 
the  great  towns  preferred  Louis 
of  Bavaria,  who  at  length  took 
his  rival  prisoner  at  the  battle 
of  Miihldorf,  and  reigned, 
though  not  in  peace,  until  1347. 

416.  His  successor,  Charles  IV.,  settled  the  rank  and 
privileges  of  the  seven  Electors,  whose  duty  it  was  to 
choose  the  emperors  and  assist  at  their  coronation.  They 
were  the  three  archbishops  of  Mentz,  Treves,  and  Cologne, 
and  four  lay-princes :  the  king  of  Bohemia,  the  duke  of 
Saxony,  the  margrave  of  Brandenburg,  and  the  count- 
palatine  of  the  Rhine.  Until  he  was  crowned  at  Rome, 
the  chosen  prince  bore  only  the  title  of  Emperor-^/rr/. 
His  successor  was  usually  chosen  during  his  life-time,  and 
was  called  King  of  the  Romans. 

417.  Wenceslaus  (A.  I).  1378- 1400),  son  of  Charles, 
cared  only  for  his  kingdom  of  Bohemia,  and  neglected  his 
imperial   duties,   spending   much  of  his  time,   moreover,   in 

(242J 


COUNCIL    OF  CONSTANCE.  243 


drunken  revelings.  At  length,  in  1400,  the  electors  de- 
posed him  and  gave  the  crown  to  Count  Ru'pert  of  the 
Rhine  (A.  I).  1400- 1410),  an  energetic  and  able  ruler 
who  would  have  done  much  for  Germany  if  his  reign  had 
been  long  enough. 

418.  Sigismund  (A.  D.  1410-1438),  brother  of  Wences- 
laus,  was  next  chosen.^  His  first  care  was  to  call  together 
a  general  council  for  the  reformation  of  the  Church  —  a 
duty  which  had  been  considered  as  devolving  on  the 
emperors  ever  since  Constantine  convened  the  Council  of 
Nice  (§  267).  The  free  city  of  Constance  was  appointed 
for  the  meeting;  and  thither  came  18,000  clergymen,  in- 
cluding patriarchs  and  bishops;  hundreds  of  learned  men 
from  the  universities;  sovereign  princes,  or  their  embassa- 
dors; last  of  all.  Pope  John  XXIII.  and  the  Emperor 
Sigismund. 

419.  The  occasion  was  serious  enough  to  justify  the 
imposing  display.  Three  popes  were  claiming  obedience 
in  France,  Spain,  and  Italy:  the  damaging  truths  which 
they  told  of  each  other  were  undermining  men's  reverence 
for  the  Church ;  and  several  great  reformers,  especially  in 
England  and  Bohemia,  were  preaching  boldly  against  the 
evil  lives  of  the  priesthood.  Though  the  Council  had 
come   together  for  purposes  of  reform,   among 

its  first  decisive  acts  was  to  burn  a  reformer. 
John  Huss,^one  of  the  great  doctors  of  the  University  of 
Prague,  was  summoned  to  answer  for  his  teachings,  and 
the  imperial  word  of  Sigismund  was  pledged  for  his  safe 
return.  He  was  tried  and  condemned  as  a  heretic ;  and 
chose  death  rather  than  denial  of  what  he  believed  to  be 
the  truth.  The  princes  and  prelates  who  stood  around 
the  emperor,  saw  a  deep  flush  of  shame  overspread  his 
face  when  the  sentence  was  read.  Huss  was  burnt  at  the 
stake;  and  his  friend  and  fellow-professor,  Jerome^  of 
Prague,  suffered  the  same  fate  within  a  year. 


244  MEDIEVAL   HISTORY. 

420.  When  the  news  reached  Bohemia,  a  civil  war^broke 
out.  Prague,  the  capital,  was  taken  by  the  Hussites,  and 
monks  were  every-where  put  to  death  in  revenge  for  the 
two  martyrs.  The  popular  fury  became  fiercer  when,  by 
the  death  of  Wenceslaus  in  1419  A.  D.  (§  417),  the  guilty 
Sigismund  became  king  of  Bohemia.  The  war  raged 
nearly  twenty  years;  and,  though  all  the  force  of  the 
empire  was  exerted  against  the  insurgents,  Sigismund  only 
gained  possession  of  his  kingdom  a  few  months  before  his 
death. 

421.  The  Council  of  Constance  deposed  all  three  of  the 
rival  popes  (§  419)  and  elected  Ot'to  Colon'na,*^  a  better 
man  than  any  of  them,  but  who  did  little  to  realize  the 
needed  reforms.  Another  council  met  at  Basle,  in  143 1, 
and  carried  on  the  work  begun  at  Constance.  It  declared 
that  the  voice  of  the  whole  Church,  in  general  council, 
was  of  supreme  authority,  and  provided  for  such  assemblies 
at  regular  intervals. 

422.  Pope  Euge'nius  IV.,  finding  that  he  could  not  man- 
age the  council  at  Basle,  summoned  a  rival  one  at  Ferrara, 
where  very  important  visitors  Avere  received.  These  were 
John  Palaeol'ogus,  emperor  of  the  East,  and  the  patriarch 
of  the  Greek  Church,  with  a  train  of  courtiers  and  clergy. 
It  may  be  remembered  (§§  294,  306)  that  the  eastern  and 
western  churches  had  separated  upon  the  question  of 
image-worship;  and  they  had  since  been  more  widely 
parted  by  a  difference  of  belief.  The  eastern  Caesar,  now 
finding  that  he  could  not  stand  alone  against  the  Turks 
(§§  34O5  37^)?  offered  to  give  up  the  points  in  dispute 
and  admit  the  supremacy  of  the  pope,  on  condition  that 
the  European  princes  would  come  to  his  aid.  The  bargain 
was  signed  and  sealed,  but  the  authorities  at  Constanti- 
nople refused  to  ratify  it;  and  fifteen  years  later  the  eastern 
empire  was  overthrown. 

423.  Upon  the   death  of  Sigismund,  the  crown   of  the 


REIGN  OF  FREDERIC  III.  245 

western  empire  was  bestowed  upon  An)ert  of  Austria,  his 
son-in-law,  and,  though  still  elective  and  often  contested, 
it  continued  to  he  worn  l)y  the  dukes  of  Austria  for  more 
than  three  centuries. 

424.  Frederic  III.®reigned  fifty-three  years  (A.  D.  1440- 
1493),  ^^"^  '^'s  vacillating  character  afforded  few  acts  worth 
telling.  He  secured  the  marriage  of  his  son  Maximilian 
with  the  young  duchess  Mary  of  Burgundy  (§413),  which 
made  him  lord  of  her  rich  inheritance  in  the  Netherlands. 
Mary  died  young;  but,  as  regent  for  his  son  Philip,  Max- 
imilian still  ruled  the  Low  Countries,  and  Philip's  marriage 
with  the  heiress  of  Spain  made  tlic  ITapsburgs  the  most 
powerful  family  in  Europe. 

Point  out,  on  Map  No.  9,  the  dominions  of  the  Seven  Electors. 
Prajjue.    Constance.     Basle.     Ferrara. 

Read  Menzel's  History  of  Germany,  Vol.  II.,  and  the  Introduction 
to  Dyer's  Modern  Europe;  also, Coxe's House  of  Austria. 

NOTES. 

1.  Frederic  was  eldest  son  of  AU^ert  I.,  and  grandson  of  Rudolph  of 
Hapsburg  (J.'^vj);  but  the  cruelty  and  avarice  of  Albert  had  much  di- 
minlshod  the  good-will  formerly  felt  towards  liis  family.  His  oppressions 
had  driven  tlie  Swiss  to  revolt,  and  thus  led  to  the  rise  of  a  confedera- 
tion of  free  states. 

Ijouis  of  Bavaria  was  supported  by  the  Ghibellines  (§36;^),  and  Frederic 
by  the  Guelfs.  After  his  capture  at  Miihldorf,  in  1322,  Frederic  signed 
a  renunciation  of  the  imperial  crown,  which  was  bestowed  upon  Louis 
at  Rome,  in  1*28. 

2.  Sigismund  had  already  for  twenty-three  years  (§418)  been  king  of 
Hungary,  baving  married  a  daughter  of  King  Ix>uis  of  Hungary  and 
Poland  in  1386.  With  blm  began  that  connection  of  the  empire  with 
tlie  HungariaTi  dominions,  which,  though  for  a  time  resisted,  had  im- 
portant efTcots  for  centuries.  Hungary  was  now  the  great  battle-ground 
of  Europe  witli  tiie  Turks  (§379),  and  their  incursions  would  have  taxed 
the  best  energies  of  even  a  braver  and  abler  prince. 

3.  It  is  said  that  nearly  100,000  people  were  at  one  time  assembled  In 
the  little  city  of  Constance,  whicli  had  only  about  7,000  permanent  in- 
habitants. The  Council  itself  numbered,  at  its  fullest  sessions.  3  patri- 
arclis,  21>  cardinals,  '^\  archbishops,  I'jO  bisbops,  ")()  provosts,  1,8(X)  priests, 
and  ;M)  doctors  of  theology,  besides  delegates  from  the  Hospitallers  and 
Teutonic  Knights  (§31(5),  an<l  embassadors  from  the  kings  of  France,  En- 

fland,  Castile,  Aragon,  Navarre,  Sweden,  Poland,  Cyprus,  and  others, 
'ope  John  XXIII.  preside<l  at  the  tii*st  session,  but  arterwards  resigned 
his  pontifical  honors  and  submitted  to  be  confined  in  the  same  prison 
where  John  Huss  was  awaiting  his  trial. 

The  Council  condemned  the  df>ctrines  of  Wicliffe,  and  commande<l 
that  his  books  should  be  burnt  and  his  body  removed  from  the  conse- 


246 


MEDIALVAL  HISTORY. 


crated  ground  In  which  it  lay  (§391).     This  was  done,  33  years  after 
Wiclifl'e's  death. 

4.  Huss  was  born,  1373,  at  the  village  of  Husinec  (or  Hussinetz),  in 
Southern  Bohemia.  He  was  appointed,  1402,  preacher  at  the  Bethlehem 
Chapel  in  Prague,  and  soon  incurred  censure  by  advocating  (g419)  the 
doctrines  of  Wicliffe,  the  great  English  reformer.  Communication  be- 
tween England  and  Bohemia  had  become  more  frequent  through  the 
marriage  of  the  Princess  Anne,  daughter  of  the  Emperor  Charles  IV. 
with  Richard  II.,  about  1380.  Unlike  her  brother  Sigisniund,  Anne  fa- 
voreil  the  reformation.  She  was  accompanied  to  England  by  many  of 
her  young  countrymen  who  had  come  to  study  at  Oxford,  where  Wicliffe 
was  then  the  most  distinguished  professor.  They  carried  his  writings 
home  with  them;  and  Huss,  when  rector  of  the  University  of  Prague, 
caused  them  to  be  translated  into  the  Bohemian  language. 

5.  Jerome  was  one  of  the  most  distinguished  followers  of  Huss,  whose 
doctrines  he  pi-ea(;hcd  with  great  effect  in  Bohemia,  Hungary,  and  Po- 
land. When  his  friend  was  cited  before  the  Council  of  Constance,  Jerome 
set  out  to  follow  and  defend  him;  but,  yielding  in  a  moment  of  weak- 
ness to  representations  of  the  great  dangers  which  awaited  heretics,  he 
halted  in  his  journey  and  would  have  returned.  He  was  arrested,  how- 
ever, and  sent  in  chains  to  Constance,  where  he  was  thrown  into  prison 
and  treated  with  great  cruelty.  Being  examined  three  times  before  the 
Council,  he  consented  at  last  to  retract  his  adhesion  to  some  of  the  doc- 
trines of  Huss;  but  he  afterwards  withdrew  his  recantation,  bitterly  re- 
penting that  fear  of  death  had  overcome  his  loyalty  to  what  he  still 
believed  true.  He  endured  a  most  cruel  execution  by  fire.  May  30,  1416, 
with  a  heroism  that  won  the  admiration  of  even  his  enemies.  He  was 
a  very  learned  man,  having  received  degrees  from  the  three  great  uni- 
versities ot  Paris,  Heidelberg,  and  Cologne. 

6.  The  greatest  Bohemian  general  was  Ziska,  who  had  already  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  wars  against  the  Teutonic  knights  in  the  North, 
the  Turks  in  the  South,  and,  in  the  English  service,  against  the  French 
in  the  battle  of  Agincourt  (§393).  Being  a  loyal  Bohemian  and  a  faith- 
ful disciple  of  Huss,  he  persuaded  the  king  to  avenge  the  death  of  the 
former  as  a  national  affront.  In  spiteof  his  relationship  to  the  emperor, 
Wenceslaus  consented,  for  a  time  at  least,  and  Ziska  took  the  chief 
command  in  the  armies.  In  August,  1420,  he  defeated  the  imperial  army 
near  Prague.  The  next  year  he  lost,  in  a  siege,  his  only  remaining  eye ; 
but,  though  totally  blind,  he  still  commanded  in  person,  and  gained 
many  victories.  He  died  1424,  and  tlie  chief  command  devolved  upon 
Procopius.  Not  only  Bohemia,  but  Saxony,  Brandenburg,  Franconia, 
Bavaria,  and  Austria  were  overswept  by  the  desolating  storm  of  war. 
However  justly  offended  they  may  have  been  at  fii*st,  we  can  not  deny 
that  the  Hussites  carried  on  the  war  with  needless  and  revolting  bru- 
tality. The  Council  of  Basle  (§421)  succeeded  in  reconciling  the  more 
moderate  Hussites,  and  the  extremists  were  defeated  at  Lepan,  1434, 
with  the  loss  of  their  great  general,  Procopius. 

7.  He  took  the  name  of  Martin  V.  His  personal  character  was  above 
reproach ;  but  he  disappointed  the  expectations  of  the  Council  by  failing 
to  carry  out  its  measures  for  the  better  discipline  of  the  Church. 

8.  Frederic  III.  was  the  last  emperor  crowned  at  Rome.  Indeed, 
the  Empire,  as  such,  had  entered  upon  a  new  phase  of  its  existence, 
and  had  lost  much  of  its  importance.  Though  several  emperors  were 
very  powerful  sovereigns,  they  derived  most  of  their  power  and  all  their 
wealth  from  their  personal  dominions;  while  their  imperial  title  gave 
them  only  the  dignity  of  precedence  among  European  princes.  Thus 
Maximilian,  the  son  of  Frederic,  was  indeed  a  great  ruler,  but  it  was  as 
Archduke  of  Austria,  Duke  of  Styria  and  Carinthia,  and  Regent  of  the 
Netherlands,  rather  than  as  Emperor.  Maximilian's  grandson,  Charles 
v.,  was  the  last  emperor  who  went  to  Italy  for  coronation;  and  he  re- 
ceived the  two  crowns  of  Italy  and  the  empire  both  together  at  Bologne, 
instead  of  assuming  one  at  Milan  and  the  other  at  Rome,  according  to 
the  ancient  custom  (§321).  After  being  chosen  by  the  seven  electors, 
the  sovereign  was  now  formally  styled  King  of  Germany  and  Emperor 
Elect,  though  he  was  commonly  spoken  of  as  "  Emperor,"  without  wait- 
ing for  coronation. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

LANC.UACES    AND    LITERATURE. 


URING  the  rude  ages,  knowledge 
of  books  belonged  only  to  priests 
and  monks.  Some  of  these  were 
wonders  of  learning,  and  a  few 
were  noted  teachers.  Such  were 
the  "Venerable  Bede,"^  who, 
early  in  the  eighth  century,  drew 
six  hundred  English  youth  about 
him  at  Jarrow,  and  instructed 
them  in  all  the  learning  of  the 
time ;  Ab'elard,'  a  bold  and  brill- 
iant thinker,  whose  disciples 
were  numbered  by  thousands, 
but  whose  writings  were  con- 
demned by  the  Church;  Albert 
the  Great^and  Thomas  Aqui'nas,^ 
the  most  learned  of  theologians; 
and  Roger  Ba'con,^  whose  lec- 
tures attracted  thousands  of  youth  to  Oxford,  but  whose 
experiments  in  physical  science  caused  him  to  be  impris- 
oned as  a  sorcerer. 

426.  Latin  was  still  the  universal  language  of  the 
learned;  so  that  scholars  from  the  remotest  corners  of 
Europe  listened  to  the  same  teachers  at  the  great  schools 
of  Bologna,  Paris,  and  Oxford.  Most  of  them  traveled 
thither  on  foot,  and  begged  their  way  as  they  went.  Pov- 
erty   was    considered    no   disgrace,    when    it  was   willingly 

(H7) 


A   Minnesinger. 


248  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 

embraced  for  the  sake  of  the  dearer  riches  of  the  mind. 
Among  the  privileges  granted  to  students  of  colleges,  by 
kings  and  emperors,  was  a  license  to  obtain  their  living 
by  beggary !  Acquaintance  with  the  great  Arabic  scholars 
led  to  new  zeal  for  learning  after  the  crusades,  and  new 
schools  sprang  up  at  Padua,  Toulouse,  Montpellier,  and 
elsewhere.  During  the  twelfth  century  an  intense  zeal  for 
the  study  of  Roman  law  became  manifest,  especially  in 
Italy.  This  may  be  accounted  for  by  the  growth  of  free- 
dom in  the  cities  (§  363)  during  the  wars  of  the  Lombard 
League  (§  364)  with  the  German  emperors.  Subjects  of 
despotic  governments  have  to  be  content  with  the  will  of 
their  rulers;  but  free  citizens  require  their  judges  to  give 
reasons  for  their  decisions,  drawn  either  from  universal 
principles  of  justice,  or  from  ancient  law;  and  hence  a 
demand  for  a  class  of  men  learned  in  the  laws,  who  could 
instruct  common  citizens  concerning  their  rights. 

427.  At  the  same  time  most  of  the  languages  of  Europe 
began  to  settle  into  their  present  forms.  Troubadours  sang 
songs  of  love  and  war  in  the  Provengal  tongue;  trouveres 
of  northern  France  wrote  endless  tales  of  chivalry  in  the 
popular  Latin  spoken  by  Franks  and  Northmen  —  whence 
such  tales  are  still  called  romances.  The  earliest  poem  in 
the  Spanish  language  rehearses  the  brave  deeds  of  the 
Cid  Ruy  Diaz,  who  died  A.  D.  1099.  Modern  Italian 
first  appears  in  the  poems  of  Frederic  II.  (§365),  and  his 
chancellor,  Peter  de  Vin'ea.  Later,  the  great  Florentine, 
Dan'te,^  described  his  visions  of  hell,  purgatory,  and  para- 
dise in  the  common  speech  of  Italy.  His  countrymen,  Pe'- 
trarch*^  and  Boccac'cio,^  perfected  the  Tuscan  dialect,  the 
one  in  his  sonnets,  the  other  in  his  prose  tales. 

428.  The  northern  nations,  which  had  never  been  con- 
quered by  the  Romans,  kept  their  own  languages,  but 
enriched  them  with  many  Roman  words.  The  songs  of 
the  troubadours  had   their  echoes   in   German   castles;    or, 


ANGUACES  AND  LITERATURE.  249 

perhaps  we  should  rather  say  that  the  same  poetical  im- 
pulse spread  like  a  wave  over  all  Europe  in  the  thirteenth 
century,  much  as  the  religious  and  knightly  impulse  of 
the  crusades  spread  over  it  in  the  eleventh;  at  any  rate, 
the  great  (ierman  epic  poem  of  the  Nihelungen  assumed 
its  present  form  about  12 10,  and  a  swarm  of  viinncsin^crs 
filled  Germany  with  their  songs  of  love.  Old  English,  as 
written  by  King  Alfred  and  the  monkish  historians,  be- 
came mingled  with  the  romame  of  the  Norman  conquer- 
ors, making  the  modern  English  which  first  ai)pears  in  the 
travels  of  Sir  John  Man'deville,®  the  sermons  of  VViclifie,^<> 
and  the  poems  of  Chaucer.  ^  ^ 

429.  The  progress  of  the  Turks  in  conquering  the  East- 
ern Empire,  drove  many  learned  men  to  take  refuge  in 
Italy,  and  the  manuscripts  which  they  brought  excited 
fresh  zeal  for  the  records  of  antiquity.  Petrarch  was 
among  the  greatest  promoters  of  the  revival  of  Learning. 
He  spent  many  years  in  searching  the  dusty  libraries  of 
convents  for  lost  works  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  writers, 
which  he  copied  with  his  own  hand.  It  was  more  than 
a  hundred  years  later  that  Lorenzo  de'  Medici^^  (5^370), 
who  was  a  poet  and  scholar,  not  less  than  a  statesman, 
gave  a  still  greater  impulse  both  to  the  literature  and  art 
of  Florence. 

Find,  on  Maps  No.  4  and  10,  the  cities  distinguished  by  the  three 
great  Universities  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

Read  Hallam's  "Literature  of  Europe;"  Fauriel's  History  of 
Provencal  Poetry,  translated  by  Adler ;  Taylor's  Survey  of  German 
Poetry ;  Campbell's  Life  of  Petrarch ;  Morley's  English  Writers, 
before  and  after  Chaucer.  J.  A.  Symonds's  Renaissance  in  Italy, 
Vols.  II,  IV,  V. 

NOTES. 

1.  Bede,  or  Bteda,  was  not  more  admired  for  his  great  learning,  than 
loved  and  revered  for  his  pure  and  saintly  character.  He  was  lx>rn 
about  A.  D.  673,  in  the  county  of  Durham,  in  ^:ngland,  and  became  a 

{)riest  at  the  age  of  30.  For  the  benefit  of  his  pupils,  he  compiled  famll- 
ar  Latin  text-books,  setting  forth  all  that  was  then  known  of  astron- 


250  MEDJAiVAL  HISTORY, 


omy,  mathematics,  grammar,  and  music;  but  his  most  important  work 
Is  his  Ecclesiastical  History  of  the  Englisli  Nation,  whicli  was  written 
in  Latin,  but  afterwards  translated  into  Old  English  by  King  Alfred 
the  Great  (§329  and  notes). 

2.  "Very  early  in  life  Abelard  (1079-1142)  became  the  most  powerful 
combatant  in  the  intellectual  tilting-matchos  of  the  schools.  Before 
the  age  of  twenty,  he  had  wandered  through  a  great  part  of  France,  as 
an  errant  logician,  and  had  found  no  combatant  who  could  resist  his 
prowess.  He  arrived  at  Paris,  where  the  celebrated  William  of  Cham- 
peaux  was  at  the  height  of  his  fame.  Tlu»  sebools  of  Paris,  which 
afterwards  expanded  into  the  renowned  university,  trembled  at  the 
temerity  of  the  youth  who  dared  to  encounter  that  veteran  in  dialectic 
warfare,  whose  shield  had  been  so  long  untouched,  and  who  had  seemed 
secure  in  his  all-acknowledged  puissance.  Abelard  in  a  short  time  was 
the  pupil,  the  rival,  the  conqueror,  and  of  course  an  object  of  implaca- 
ble animosity  to  the  vanquished  chieftain  of  the  schools.  He  seized 
at  once  on  the  weak  parts  of  his  teacher's  system,  and  in  his  pride  of 
strength  scrupled  not  to  trample  him  in  the  dust.    .    .    . 

"  There  was  no  branch  of  knowledge  on  which  Abelard  did  not  be- 
lieve himself,  and  was  not  believed,  competent  to  give  the  fullest  in- 
struction. Not  merely  did  all  Paris  and  the  adjacent  districts  throng  to 
his  school,  but  there  was  no  country  so  remote,  no  road  so  difficult,  but 
that  the  pupils  defied  the  toils  and  perils  of  the  way.  Even  Rome,  the 
great  teacher  of  the  world  in  all  arts  and  sciences,  acknowledged  the 
superior  wisdom  of  Abelard,  and  sent  her  sons  to  submit  to  his  disci- 
phne.  ...  So  great  was  the  concourse  of  scholars,  that  lodging  and 
provision  could  not  be  found  for  the  countless  throng.  On  the  one  side 
he  was  an  object  of  the  most  excessive  admiration,  on  the  other  of  the 
most  implacable  hatred." 

"Abelard  fled.  .  .  .  After  some  delay  he  found  a  wild  retreat, 
where,  like  the  hermits  of  old,  he  built  his  solitary  cabin  of  osier  and 
of  thatch."  Almost  immediately  "  the  desert  was  peopled  around  him 
by  his  admiring  scholars.  .  .  .  They  built  lowly  hovels,  .  .  .  fed 
on  bread  and  wild  herbs.  .  .  .  reposed  contentedly  on  straw  and 
chaff.  A  monastery  arose,  which  had  hardly  space  in  its  cells  for  the 
crowding  votaries.  Abelard  called  it  the  Paraclete,  a  name  which,  by 
its  novelty  and  seeming  presumption,  gave  new  offense  to  his  multi- 
plying enemies.  .  .  .  His  whole  system  of  teaching,  the  foundation 
and  discipline  and  studies  in  the  Paraclete,  could  not  but  be  looked 
upon  with  alarm.  This  new  philosophic  community— a  community  at 
least  bound  together  by  no  religious  vow— ...  in  which  the  pro- 
foundest  and  most  awful  mysteries  were  freely  discussed,  .  .  .  awoke 
the  vigilant  jealousy  of  the  two  great  reformers  of  the  age,  Norbert, 
Archbishop  of  Magdeburg,  .  .  .  and  Bernard,  whose  abbey  of  Clair- 
vaux  was  the  model  of  the  most  rigorous,  most  profoundly  religious 
monastic  life.    .    ,    . 

"Abelard,  in  all  his  pride,  felt  that  he  stood  alone,  an  object  of  uni- 
versal suspicions.  .  .  .  His  overweening  haughtiness  broke  down 
into  overweening  dejection.  In  his  despair  he  thought  seriously  of 
taking  refuge  beyond  the  borders  of  Christendom  " 

By  his  Breton  countrymen  "he  was  offered  the  dignity  of  abbot  in 
a  monastery  on  the  coast  of  Brittany.  It  was  a  bleak  and  desolate  re- 
gion, the  monks  as  rude  and  savage  as  the  people.  There,  on  the  very 
verge  of  the  world,  on  the  shores  of  the  ocean,  Abelard  sought  in  vain 
for  quiet." 

The  greatest  of  his  opponents  was  St.  Bernard  (g  347  and  note),  who 
procured  the  condemnation  of  his  doctrines  by  the  Council  of  Sens, 
and  afterward  by  the  Pope. 

"Absent,  unheard,  unconvicted,  Abelard  was  condemned  by  the  su- 
preme Pontiff.  The  decree  of  Innocent  condemned  all  public  disputa- 
tions on  the  mysteries  of  religion.  Abelard  was  condemned  to  silence, 
his  disciples  to  excommunication. 

"Still,  for  the  last  two  yeai-s  of  his  life,  he  found  peace,  honor,  se- 
clusion, in  the  abbey  of  Clugny.  He  died  at  the  age  of  sixty-three."— 
Abridged  from  Milman^s  Latin  Christianity. 

3.  Albert  the  Great  (A.  D.  1200-1280)  had  no  superior  among  the 
"schoolmen  "  of  the  Middle  Ages.    He  lectured  three  yeai-s  at  Paris,  and 


NOTES.  251 


tor  many  yean  at  OoIoKne,  and  lea  many  writlnRii  on  logic,  theology, 
philosophy,  and  physical  science.  He  was  n  nnfivc  «»f  Havarla,  and  be- 
fongcd  to  tlie  I>«>iuinicaii  Onler. 

4.  Thomas  Aquinas  (A.  I).  rii>-r271Ka  ixipil  «)i  Allnrt  tin-  (Jreat,  was 
of  a  n«)l)l«'  family  in  tho  kiiiudoin  of  Naph's,  haviiiK  t)e«'n  a  Kratid- 
neplu'W  of  the  Einprror  Kretlrrh-  I.  His  fame  as  a  t<'aoh«'r  has  iirvcr 
Imumi  surptissrd ;  lit'  was  oalh'*!  Ilic  AnKellc  I>octor,  and  crowds  of  at- 
triitlvi'  lu'arcrs  uallu*r('<l  alnmt  him  at  Paris  and  at  Kome.  The  nio«t 
important  of  his  many  works  is  his  Sumo/  T/teoloyij, 

5.  Roger  Bacon  (A.  I).  V2\i-\'2iY2  ,  called  Thr  AOmiruMe  Doctor.  nn<l  the 

Kreatest  philosojilicr  of  the  thirteenth  ciMitury,  was  an  Knglisliman, 
aving  Ix'cn  l)orn  in  Somersetshire  and  educated  at  Oxford  and  Paris. 
He  wa-s  thor«)Ughly  aicquainted  with  Latin,  (Jrcek,  Hol)rcw,  mctapliys- 
ics,  and  tlicoloKy,  hut  was  especially  remarkahic  among  tlu;  learnt'd 
schoolmen  for  lils  fondness  for  and  acquirements  in  pliysieal  science. 
His  skill  in  mechanics  was  indeed  so  great  as  to  draw  upon  him  the 
suspicion  of  dealing  In  nuigical  arts,  and  he  was  sentenced  hy  a  (^ouncil 
of  Ills  own  Franciscan  Ortler  to  an  Imprisonment  which  lasted  ten 
years.    His  Optus  Majus  treats  of  nearly  all  the  sciences  as  then  known. 

6.  Dante  Alighieri  was  born  In  Florence,  A.  D.  12(r).  and  was  liber- 
ally educated  at  the  universities  of  Padua,  Bologna,  and  Paris.  Critics 
call  him  the  most  original  of  all  writers  and  the  greatest  poet  that  ap- 

B?ared  l)etween  the  age  of  Augustus  (j;242)  and  that  of  Elizjibeth  (goll). 
e  may  almost  be  sjiid  to  have  created  the  language  in  which  he  wrote, 
which,  though  spoken  in  common  Intercourse,  had  never  been  made  a 
metllum  of  literature.  His  genius  was  early  stimluated  by  his  love  for 
Ileatrice  Portinari,  which,  after  her  early  death,  inspired  the  greatest 
of  his  poems. 

The  family  of  Dante  were  Guelfs,  and  he  at  one  time  held  high 
office  in  Florence,  where  that  party  was  supreme.  But  the  (iuelfs 
themselves  were  divided  into  the  Whites  and  the  Blacks;  and  Dante, 
belonging  to  the  defeated  Whites,  was  condemned  In  I'SOU  to  exile  and 
confiscation  of  his  property.  The  rest  of  his  life  was  spent  in  exile; 
and,  though  a  welcome  and  honored  guest  at  the  courts  of  several  princes, 
he  never  ceased  to  long  for  his  beloved  city. 

He  became  a  Ghibelline  by  principle,  and,  in  his  Ltitin  treatise  De 
Monarchid,  set  forth  the  loftiest  ideal  of  the  empire,  as  a  divine  institu- 
tion for  the  maintenance  of  justice  in  the  world.  His  greatest  work— 
the  one  mentioned  in  the  text— is  the  Divina  Commedia.  It  is  called  a 
comedy,  neither  in  the  chissical  nor  the  modern  sense;  for  it  is  the 
most  somber  of  poems;  but,  because  it  is  written  in  the  language  of  the 
common  people.  There  is  an  admirable  English  translation  by  Profes- 
sor H.  W,  I»ngfellow,  with  notes,  which  contain  a  treasure  of  Informa- 
tion concerning  mediaival  literature  and  life. 

7.  The  father  of  Petrarch  was,  with  Dante,  an  exile  from  Florence, 
and  his  son  was  born,  A.  D.  i;W,  at  Arezzo,  in  Tuscany.  The  family 
afterwards  removed  to  Avignon,  the  seat  of  the  papal  court.  Francis 
Petrarch  studied  law  at  Montpellier  and  Bologna;  but  the  chief  delight 
of  his  life,  then  and  afterwanls,  was  the  reading  of  Uitin  authors,  some 
of  whose  long-lost  manuscripts  he  discovered  in  the  dust  and  rubbish 
of  old  monasteries.  In  this  way  he  rescued  two  lost  orations  of  Cicero 
at  Liege,  and  the  same  author's  "Familiar  Letters"  at  Verona.  He 
spent  much  time  in  copying  and  arranging  fragments  of  ancient  writ- 
ings, often  making  complete  what  liad  existed  only  in  scattered  pieces; 
and  thus  contributed  more  than  any  other  man  of  hisage  to  the  Revi- 
val of  Ixmrning.  He  was,  moreover,  one  of  the  three  founders  of  Italian 
literature,  which  attaine<l  perfection  in  his  three  hundred  sonnets  and 
fifty  canzoni  addressed  to  I^ura  de  Sade.  This  lady  wjus  distinguished 
not  more  by  lier  rank,  wealth,  and  beauty,  than  by  her  lofty  purity 
of  character,  which  a«lded  a  reverent  respect  to  the  lifelong  devotion 
of  Petrarch.  One  of  his  finest  i)oems  is  that  in  which  he  descrll)es  her 
death  in  1.*^.  Petrarch  receive<f  the  Iaurel-<;rown  of  poetry  in  the  capital 
at  Rome  in  1341,  by  the  award  of  the  senate.  For  a  time  he  w^as  an  ad- 
herent of  Rienzi  (g367),  and  shared  his  dream  of  a  new  Roman  Repub- 
lic. 


252  MEDIEVAL   HISTORY. 

He  was  Archdeacon  of  Parma,  and  canon  of  several  cathedrals,  but 
declined  the  higher  dignities  that  were  offered  him,  for  fear  of  losing 
his  independence  and  leisure  for  literary  work.  He  had  great  influence 
with  the  princes  of  his  time,  who  employed  him  in  important  embas- 
sies. His  favorite  residence  was  the  beautiful  Vaucluse,  a  romantic  glen 
in  the  mountains  near  Avignon.  He  died  A.  D.  1374,  at  Arqua,  his  later 
home  among  the  Euganean  Hills. 

8.  Boccaccio  was  born  in  Paris,  A.  D.  1313,  though  the  son  of  a  Flor- 
entine merchant.  He  was  forty  years  of  age  when  he  wrote,  at  the  re- 
quest of  Queen  Joanna  of  Naples  (§408  and  note),  his  Dccamerone  or 
Hundred  Tales,  on  wliich  his  fame  principally  rests.  In  later  life  he 
lectured  on  Dante,  and  wrote  a  commentary  on  the  Injerno.  Like  his 
friend  Petrarch  he  did  good  service  in  the  Revival  of  Learning  by  col- 
lecting and  copying  manuscripts,  many  of  which  he  found  during  his 
missions  to  various  foreign  courts.    He  died  a  year  after  Petrarch. 

9.  Sir  John  Mandeville,  sometimes  called  the  English  Herodotus,  was 
born  at  St.  Albans  about  1300.  After  practicing  medicine  for  a  time, 
he  set  out  for  Palestine,  where  he  entered  the  service  of  the  sultan  of 
Egypt.  He  traveled  extensively  through  various  countries  of  Asia,  and 
reached  Pekin,  where  he  spent  three  years.  The  narrative  which  he 
wrote  of  his  wonderful  adventures,  is  always  amusing  and  sometimes 
true;  but  he  borrowed  many  extravagant  stories  from  the  romances  of 
the  Middle  Ages.  The  chief  value  of  his  work  is  in  its  being  the  first 
extended  example  of  English  prose. 

10.  Geoffrey  Chaucer  was  born  at  London,  A.  D.  1328,  and  became 
a  favorite  of  King  Edward  III.  and  his  court.  In  1373  he  went  to  Genoa 
on  a  mission  from  the  king,  and  met  the  then  aged  poet,  Petrarch,  whose 
Influence  appears  in  some  of  his  poems.  Chaucer's  chief  work  is  the 
"Canterbury  Tales,"  the  plot  of  which  is  said  to  have  been  suggested 
by  the  Decamerone.  The  several  stories  are  told  by  pilgrims  journeying 
to  the  shrine  of  Thomas  a  Becket  (§382),  who  represent  all  varieties  of 
character,  from  sailor  to  baron,  and  from  parson  to  plowman.  The 
language  differs  much  from  the  English  of  our  day,  but  its  difl^culties 
are  soon  conquered,  and  there  is  an  inexhaustible  charm  in  the  liveli- 
ness of  the  descriptions  and  the  rich  and  varied  humor  of  the  narra- 
tive. 

11.  John  Wicliffe  (§381)  was  born  about  1324,  and  was  educated  at 
Oxford,  where,  in  1361,  he  became  master  of  Baliol  College.  Though 
often  called  in  question  by  high  tribunals  for  his  denunciation  of  the 
corruptions  of  the  times,  he  had  a  powerful  protector  in  John  of  Gaunt, 
and  in  later  years  in  Queen  Anne,  wife  of  Richard  II.  The  citizens  of 
London  also  sympathized  with  him,  and  rallied  in  his  defense.  He  was 
expelled  at  last  from  his  chair  at  Oxford,  and,  retiring  to  his  parish  of 
Lutterworth,  devoted  his  last  three  years  to  his  translation  of  the  Bible, 
and  to  the  writing  of  tracts  for  the  religious  instruction  of  the  com- 
mon people.    He  died  December,  1384. 

12.  Lorenzo  was  a  zealous  collector  of  ancient  manuscripts,  gems, 
and  statuary,  which  he  liberally  placed  at  the  service  of  students,  and 
in  every  way  promoted  and  encouraged  their  use.  His  library,  still  ex- 
isting in  Florence,  contains  -  many  rare  treasures.  During  Lorenzo's 
life-time,  Matthias  Corviuus,  King  of  Hungary,  kept  a  secretary  for 
many  years  in  this  library  employed  in  copying  rare  manuscripts- so 
that  the  Florentine  citizen's  liberal  tastes  benefited  distant  lands.  The 
"  New  Academy  "  founded  by  Lorenzo,  was  an  association  of  learned 
men,  whose  influence,  so  far  as  it  extended,  recommended  the  philoso- 
phy of  Plato  as  a  substitute  for  that  of  Aristotle,  which  had  hitherto 
been  supreme.  The  new  school  of  Italian  sculpture,  of  which  Michael 
Angelo  was  the  greatest  representative,  owed  its  origin  to  his  patron- 
age, and  the  pre-eminence  of  Florence,  in  the  history  of  Art,  dates  from 
his  time. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

DAWN    OK   THE   MODERN    ERA. 

HE  two  centuries  following  the 
Crusades  were  full  of  changes. 
A  rich  commercial  class  sprang 
up,  whose  travels  and  enterprises 
drew  the  north  and  the  south, 
the  east  and  the  west,  into  closer 
acquaintance.  Three  arts,  bor- 
rowed from  the  remote  east,  oc- 
casioned immense  revolutions  in 
Europe.  The  first  was  the  manu- 
facture of  gunpowder,  which  put 
an  end  to  feudal  power  and  the 
supremacy  of  armed  knights. 
Hitherto,  the  castle  on  the  cliff, 
as  long  as  food  and  water  held 
out,  could  withstand  all  attacks 
of  common  citizens,  while  a  single 
Costumes  of  XV.  Century,     horseman,  encascd  in  steel,  could 

put    to   flight   a   hundred    unarmed   peasants.     Gunpowder 

went  far  to  equalize  ranks. 

431.  The  inventions  of  paper  and  printing  did  still  more 
to  equalize  knowledge.  So  long  as  the  only  books  were 
copied  with  the  pen  on  costly  parchment,  learning  was  for 
those  who  could  devote  life  or  fortune  to  its  pursuit. 
Paper  was  made  from  cotton,  at  Samarcand,  as  early  as 
the  seventh  century;  but  cotton  was  then  rare  and  costly 
in  Europe,  and  it  was  six  hundred  years  later  that  linen 
rags  were  found  to  answer  the  same  purpose.  Printing 
from  solid  blocks  had  long  been  practiced  in  China;  but, 

(253) 


254  MEDIAEVAL    HISTORY. 

in  1438  A.  D.,  a  Dutch  mechanic,  named  Kos'ter,  in- 
vented movable  types  of  wood;  and,  six  years  later,  John 
Gutenberg,  of  Mentz,  cut  similar  types  from  metal,  with 
which  he  printed  the  first  edition  of  the  Bible.  The  new 
art  was  eagerly  adopted  in  England,  France,  Italy,  and 
Spain,  and  books  were  soon  within  the  reach  of  the 
common  people. 

432.  During  the  fifteenth  century  most  of  the  great 
duchies  and  counties  became  absorbed  into  centralized 
monarchies.  The  seventeen  provinces  which  were  called 
collectively  the  ''Low  Countries,"  or  Netherlands,  were 
united  under  the  dukes  of  Burgundy.  The  marriage  of 
Charles  VIII.  (§  414)  with  the  Duchess  Anne  of  Brittany, 
annexed  the  last  of  the  great  fiefs  to  the  crown  of  France. 
The  Wars  of  the  Roses  (§§  396-399)  had  destroyed  feud- 
alism in  England.  Many  noble  families  had  become  ex- 
tinct, and  their  lands  were  bought,  in  some  instances,  by 
merchants  —  marking  a  great  rise  of  the  industrious  classes 
into  honor  and  dignity. 

433.  The  kingdom  of  Naples  was  reunited  with  that  of 
Sicily  and  Aragon  (§366)  under  Alfonso  V.  His  suc- 
cessor added  the  crown  of  Navarre  to  those  of  his  other 
dominions;  and  all  Spain  soon  afterwards  became  consoli- 
dated by  the  marriage  of  Fer'dinand^  of  Aragon  with  Isa- 
bel'la  of  Castile  and  Leon,  and  by  their  joint  conquest  of 
the  Moors  in  the  south.  These  brave  and  brilliant  people 
had  maintained  a  Mohammedan  empire  in  Spain  for  nearly 
eight  hundred  years,  and  in  arts  and  learning  they  far 
surpassed  their  conquerors.  Their  cities  were  adorned  with 
the  most  beautiful  buildings  in  Europe,  but  their  power 
had  long  been  declining.  In  1492,  their  capital,  Granada, 
was  taken  by  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  and  the  great  penin- 
sula was  again  under  Christian  rule. 

434.  The   greatness  and   goodness  of   Isabella  were   sul- 
lied   by   cruel   bigotry.     The   Spanish   Inquisition,   a   secret 


DISCOVERY  OF  AMERICA.  255 


court  for  the  punishment  of  heretics  and  dissenters,  was 
established  early  in  her  reign.  On  the  suspicion  of  heresy, 
any  man  might  be  brought  before  the  black-hooded  incjuis- 
itors,  who  sat  in  a  dark  chamber  underground.  He  had 
no  opportunity  for  defense ;  he  did  not  see  the  faces  of 
his  judges,  nor  know  the  special  acts  of  which  he  was 
accused;  and  rarely,  if  ever,  did  he  again  see  the  light  of 
day.  Another  cruel  act  was  the  exile  of  the  Jews,  who 
had  hitherto  been  better  treated  in  Spain  than  in  any  other 
country  of  Europe,  and  were  the  most  enlightened  and 
useful  of  her  subjects.  Thousands  died  from  the  hardships 
of  the  voyages;  those  who  survived,  enriched  other  lands 
by  their  skill  and  industry,  and  the  fatal  decline  of  Spain 
began  at  the  proudest  moment  of  her  triumph. 

435-    A.ge    of    Discoveries. — The    greatest    glory   of 
Isabella  is  connected  with  the  discovery  of  America.     The 
Portuguese^  had  been   first  to  explore   the   Atlantic   to  the 
southward,  and   find    a    sea-route    to    India    by 
passing    the    Cape   of   Good    Hope.     The    rich  '  ^^  ^' 

Indian  traffic,  as  carried  on  by  Alexandria  and  the  Red 
Sea,  had  afforded  much  of  the  wealth  of  Venice.  It  was 
now  diverted  to  the  Atlantic,  and  the  great  Republic  be- 
gan to  decline.  The  Portuguese  established  a  number  of 
important  trading  posts  (§574)  in  India,  of  which  "Goa 
the  Golden,"  on  the  western  coast,   was  the  principal. 

436.  The  yet  bolder  enterprise  of  Chris'topher  Colum'- 
bus,  with  the  aid  of  Queen  Isabella,  resulted  in  the  open- 
ing of  a  Neuf  World  to  the  knowledge  of  Eu- 
ropeans. In  his  first  and  second  voyages,  Co- 
lumbus'visited  what  we  know  as  the  West  India  Islands; 
in  his  third,  he  touched  the  mainland  of  South  America, 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco,  1498.  One  year  before, 
Sebas'tian  Cab'ot,^  a  Venetian  in  the  service  of  Henry  VII. 
of  England  (§  399),  had  explored  the  North  American 
coast    from  Hudson  to  Chesapeake  Pay.      'J'he  Portuguese 


256  MEDIEVAL   HISTORY. 

Cabral',  in  1500,  took  possession  of  Brazil  in  the  name  of 
his   king. 

437.  The  great  Columbus  died  in  poverty  in  the  country 
which  he  had  enriched  by  his  discoveries.  His  son,  as 
viceroy  of  the  New  World,  conquered  and  colonized  Cuba. 
Other  Spaniards  followed,  moved  by  the  same  romantic 
spirit  of  adventure  that  had  been  nourished  by  the  wars 
against  the  Moors.  Vas'co  Nu'nez  de  Balbo'a,^  in  15 13, 
ascended  the  mountains  of  the  Isthmus,  and,  first  of 
Europeans,  looked  westward  over  the  waters  of  the  Pacific. 
Magel'lan,  in  1520,  passed  the  southern-most  point  of  the 
American  continent,  crossed  the  Pacific,  and  discovered 
the  islands  afterwards  called  Philippine,  from  Philip  II.  of 
Spain.  He  was  killed  on  one  of  these  islands,  but  his 
squadron  completed  the  first  circumnavigation  of  the  globe. 

438.  Most  of  the  natives  of  the  New  World  were  sav- 
ages, living  by  hunting  and  fishing,  or  upon  the  spontane- 
ous products  of  the  soil.  They  were  inclined  to  be 
friendly,  and,  in  their  awe  of  superior  power,  regarded  the 
white  men  as  messengers  from  heaven ;  but  the  cruelty  and 
deceit  of  the  Spaniards  soon  changed  their  minds.  Two 
great  empires,  Mexico  and  Peru,  had  gained  a  high  degree 
of  civilization.  Their  cities  were  guarded  by  a  well-ordered 
police;  their  magnificent  temples  were  adorned  with  ex- 
quisite carvings  in  stone  and  wood,  and  their  markets  were 
filled  with  delicate  and  costly  merchandise.  By  the  pos- 
session  of  fire-arms  and   horses,  two  Spanish  adventurers, 

Cor'tez  in  Mexico  and  Pizar'ro  in  Peru,  were 

A.  D.  1519-1536.         ,  ,  ,  ... 

able  to  conquer  these  two  empires  with  mere 
handfuls  of  European  troops.  To  satisfy  the  Spanish  thirst 
for  gold,  the  natives  were  driven  to  work  the  mines,  and 
it  is  said  that,  in  Peru,  four-fifths  of  the  laborers  perished 
in  these  unaccustomed  toils.  The  good  priest  Las  Cas'as^ 
made  every  effort  to  relieve  their  sufferings.  When  a  brill- 
iant young  student  of  the  University  of  Salamanca,  he  had 


SPAN/S//   EXP/.OKE/iS.  257 


accompanied  the  second  expedition  of  Columbus;  and  his 
heart  was  so  touched,  by  tlic  helplessness  and  heathenism 
of  the  natives,  that  he  renounced  all  ambition  and  chose  a 
life  of  poverty,  in  order  to  elevate  and  help  them.  His 
fifty  years  of  devoted  effort  were  not  in  vain,  though  few 
of  his  countrymen  shared  his  humane  spirit.  Among  other 
plans,  he  procured  the  introduction  of  Africans,  who  seemed 
better  able  to  endure  the  hardships  of  the  mines  and  the 
j)lantations;  but  he  lived  to  pronounce  the  scheme  a  failure, 
for  it  enslaved  one  race  without  rescuing  the  other. 

439.  Other  Spaniards  explored  the  western  coasts  of 
North  America,  and  laid  the  humble  founda- 
tion of  our  modern  California.  Fer'dinand  '  *  '5^^^542- 
de  So'to,  from  the  eastward,  penetrated  to  the  Mississippi, 
in  1539,  and  explored  the  basin  of  the  Arkansas;  but  he 
died  in  the  wilderness,  leaving  no  monument  of  his  discov- 
eries. The  French  were,  very  early,  attracted  to  the  fish- 
eries of  Newfoundland,  but  they  were  among  the  last  to 
make  settlements  in  the  New  World. 

The  unveiling  of  this  great  continent,  with  its  wonderful 
products  and  its  immeasurable  wealth,  had  a  great  effect 
in  arousing  the  mind  of  Europe  to  new  enterprise,  and 
was  among  the  chief  causes  that  led  to  the  Modern  Era. 

Point  out  the  several  Christian  and  Moorish  kingdoms  in  Spain. 
The  different  commercial  routes  between  Europe  and  Asia.  Trace 
the  voyages  of  Columbus,  Cabot,  Balboa,  Magellan.  Point  out 
Mexico  and    Peru. 

Read  Prescott's  History  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  Conquest  of 
Mexico,  and  Conquest  of  Peru  ;  Irving's  Life  of  Columbus;  and  Ma- 
jor's Life  of  Prince  Henry  the  Navigator. 

NOTES. 

1.  Ferdinand,  surnamed  the  Catholic,  was,  perlinps,  the  ablest  and 
most  successful  monarch  of  his  age.  His  own  Itingaom.  since  the  ac- 
quisition of  Catnlonia  In  the  twelfth  century,  had  been  the  third  mari- 
tinio  power  in  the  world;  his  marriage  with  Isabella  united  all  the 
Christian  kingdoms  in  Spain  under  one  rule;  and  their  joint  efforts 
soon  established  order  and  peace  in  place  of  the  turbulent  violence  of 
the  noblos.  The  two  sovereigns  sat  a.s  judges  once  a  week  to  hear  the 
complaints  of  their  poorer  subjects,  who  could  not  aflbrd  the  expense 
Hi8t.-17. 


258 


MEDJyEVAL  HISTORY. 


of  ordinary  lawsuits.  They  also  provided  for  the  better  education  of 
the  youth  of  tlieir  realms,  inviting  learned  fnen  to  settle  in  the  coun- 
try, and  founding  universities.  The  shrewd  policy  of  Ferdinand  often 
degenerated  into  fraud,  especially  in  his  ware  with  Louis  XII.  of  France 
for  the  possession  of  soutliern  Italy,  it  is  said  that  "Spain  called  him 
the  Wise;  Italy,  the  Pious;  France  and  England,  the  Perfidious." 

2.  The  chief  promoter  of  Portuguese  enterprise  in  this  direction  was 
Prince  Henry,  called  "the  Navigator"  (g  A.  D.  1394-1460),  "to  whose  en- 
liglitened  foresight  and  perseverance  the  human  race  is  indebted  for 
the  maritime  discovery  within  one  century,  of  more  than  half  the 
globe."  He  was  half  an  Englishman;  for  his  mother,  Philippa,  was 
daughter  of  John  of  Gaunt,  and  granddaughter  of  King  Edward  III. 
(see  gg  387-391).  At  the  age  of  21,  he  liad  so  distinguished  himself  in  war 
against  the  Moors,  that  the  Pope,  the  emperor,  and  the  kings  of  En- 
gland and  Castile  offered  him  the  chief  command  in  their  respective 
armies.  But  the  prince  desired  something  better  than  military  glory. 
He  was  Grand  Master  of  the  Portuguese  military  "Order  of  Christ,"  and 
believed  that  its  immense  revenues  could  be  spent  in  no  better  way 
than  in  extending  the  boundaries  of  Christendom,  and  in  satisfying 
man's  rightful  craving  for  knowledge  concerning  the  world  that  has 
been  given  him  for  a  home.  "  Accordingly,  in  1418-19,  he  took  up  his 
abode  on  the  extreme  south-western  point  of  Europe,  the  promontory 
of  Sagres  in  Algarve,  of  whicli  kingdom  he  was  made  governor  in  per- 
petuity, with  the  purpose  of  devoting  liimself  to  the  study  of  astronomy 
and  mathematics,  and  to  tlie  direction  and  encouragement  of  the  ex- 
peditions which  he  proposed  to  send  forth.  There  he  erected  an  observa- 
tory—the first  in  Portugal— and,  at  great  expense,  procured  the  services 
of  Mestre  Jaconie,  from  Majorca,  a  man  very  skillful  in  the  art  of  nav- 
igation and  in  the  making  of  maps  and  instruments,  to  instruct  the 
Portuguese  officers  in  those  sciences."  The  prince  liad  gained  much  in- 
formation from  the  Mooi-s  concerning  the  people  and  natural  features 
of  western  Africa;  the  main  practical  results  of  his  enterprises  were  the 
rediscovery  and  colonization  of  Madeira,  the  settlement  of  the  Azores, 
and  the  exploration  of  tlie  western  African  coast  as  far  as  the  Gambia. 
But  he  accomplished  more  than  this  in  leading  the  way  to  bolder  the- 
ories of  navigation.  "  Until  his  day  the  pathways  of  the  human  race 
had  been  the  mountain,  the  river,  and  the  plain;  tlie  strait,  the  lake, 
and  the  inland  sea.  It  was  he  who  first  conceived  the  thought  of  open- 
ing a  road  through  tlie  unexplored  ocean— a  road  replete  with  danger, 
but  abundant  with  promise." 

The  above  facts  and  quotations  are  from  the  Encyclopcedia  Britannica. 

3.  Christoforo  Colombo,  or,  as  he  afterwards  Latinized  his  name, 
Columbus,  was  of  Genoese  birth.  In  childhood  he  studied  geometry, 
astronomy,  and  navigation  at  the  University  of  Pavia,  but  at  tlie  age  oi 
fourteen  he  entered  upon  that  sea- faring  life  in  which  he  attained 
greater  glory  than  any  mariner  before  or  since.  For  many  years  he 
sailed  the  Mediterranean,  engaged  now  in  commerce  and  then  in  war; 
but,  in  1470,  at  the  age  of  thirty  or  thirty-five,  he  repaired  to  Lisbon, 
which  Prince  Henry  (note  2)  had  made  the  chief  center  of  maritime 
enterprise.  Here  he  married,  and  in  the  intervals  of  expeditions  to  the 
west  coast  of  Africa,  supported  his  family  by  making  maps  and  charts 
for  navigators.  A  grand  schera^e  was  already  taking  possession  of  his 
mind;  viz,  to  push  boldly  to  the  westward  until  he  sliould  reach,  as  he 
confidently  believed,  Japan.  In  1477  he  sailed  a  hundred  leagues  north 
of  Iceland.  His  first  efforts  to  obtain  means  for  his  great  enterprise 
were  in  vain,  and  he  became  so  poor  that  on  his  way  to  the  Spanish 
court,  he  was  compelled  to  beg  for  bread  at  a  convent.  Still  his  lofty 
resolution  sustained  him,  and,  after  eight  years'  delay,  Queen  Isabella, 
with  a  spirit  as  noble  as  his  own,  exclaimed,  "  I  will  undertake  the 
enterprise  for  mine  own  crown  of  Castile,  and,  if  it  be  needful,  I  will 
pawn  my  jewels  to  defray  the  expense."  Columbus  was  made  High 
Admiral  and  Viceroy  of  all  the  lands  he  might  discover;  three  small 
ships  were  placed  at  his  disposal,  and  lie  set  sail  from  Palos,  Aug.  3, 
1492.  After  stopping  at  the  Canaries  to  refit,  the  little  squadron  pushed 
westward  into  those  unknown  regions  which  were  peopled  with  inde- 
scribable terrors  for  the  ignorant  and  supei-stitious  seamen.  It  is  said 
that  Columbus  was  heading  for  what  is  now  the  coast  of  Georgia,  wheq 


NOTES.  259 


H  fliKht  of  binlH  from  tho  Kouthwnnl  convinced  him  that  ho  Hhoultl  And 
hind  sooner  In  that  direction;  and  so  it  wa«  onh'n-d  tluit  tlie  Ba- 
lianiaK  Instead  of  our  own  territory  were  first  occupied  by  Spaniards. 
Just  as  tiie  discontent  of  the  siillors  was  breaking  lntx>  dangerous  mu- 
tiny the  glati  cry,  "I>j»nd  aliead  !  "  was  iieanl  from  tlie  mast,  and  alow, 
firecn  Island  lH>rdcre<l  with  trees  was  s<M)n  seen.  With  joy  and  thank- 
fulness only  to  »)e  measunnt  by  tbe  painful  burden  of  anxiety  which 
he  had  l)orne,  the  ureat  admiral  knelt  on  the  tbreshold  of  the  New 
World,  and  named  the  islaml  Sati  Salntdm-.  Still,  and  always,  he  be- 
lieved tliat  he  iiad  only  touche<i  unknown  parts  of  Asia;  he  Identified 
tlu'  mines  of  Vera^ua  with  those  from  which  Solomon  had  obtained 
the  gold  for  his  temple,  being  in  the  siime  latitude,  and,  according  to 
his  calculations,  e(iually  distant  from  tbe  River  Ganges. 

Irving  says  of  Columbus,  "His  conduct  was  characterized  by  the 
grandeur  of  his  views  and  the  magnanimity  of  his  spirit.  Instead  of 
scouring  the  newly-found  countries,  like  a  grasping  adventurer  eager 
only  for  immediate  gain,  he  sought  to  ascertain  their  soil  and  pnxluc- 
tlons  their  rivers  and  harlwrs;  he  was  desirous  of  colonizing  and  cul- 
tivating tbem;  of  conciliating  and  civilizing  the  natives;  of  building 
cities,  Intnxlucing  the  useful  arts,  subjecting  every  thing  to  the  control 
of  law,  onler,  and  religion,  and  thus  of  founding  regular  and  prosper- 
ous empires." 

While  Queen  Isabella  lived,  Columbus  had  a  friend  who  shared  his 
high  enthusiasm,  and  comforted  him  in  calamities  which  she  could  not 
entirely  prevent.  Her  death,  in  1.j04,  left  him  at  the  mercy  of  a  crafty 
and  ungrateful  king,  and  his  last  years  were  full  of  sorrows. 

4.  John  Cabot,  a  Venetian  pilot  and  navigator,  received  from  Henrj"^ 
VII.  a  patent  authorizing  himself  and  his  sons  to  t^ike  possession,  in  the 
king's  name,  of  any  "islands  or  regions  inhal)ite(i  i)y  infidels,"  which 
they  could  discover  at  tiieir  own  risk  and  expense.  Sebastian  Cabot, 
the  most  distinguished  of  the  sons,  was  born  at  Bristol,  England,  in 
H77.  A  few  years  after  the  voyage  mentioned  in  the  text,  he  sallea  as 
far  south  lus  the  extreme  point  of  Florida.  Entering  the  service  of  the 
King  of  Spain,  in  lol2,  he  became  a  member  of  the  Council  of  the  In- 
dies, at  Seville;  but  afterwards  returned  to  England,  where  he  died  at 
great  age. 

5.  Vasco  Nunez  de  Balboa,  a  Spanish  adventurer,  had  been  told  by 
the  natives  of  Central  America,  of  a  vast  ocean  beyond  the  mountains 
and  the  southward.  Witii  a  chosen  band  of  hardy  men,  he  climbed, 
first  through  miles  of  tropical  forests,  and  then  over  rocky  precipices, 
until  he  reached  an  airy  region  within  sight  of  the  summit.  Then,  leav- 
ing his  foUowei-s  behind,  "with  a  palpitating  heart  he  ascended  alone 
tlie  bare  mountain-top.  It  was  as  if  a  new  world  were  unfolded  to  him; 
separated  from  all  hitherto  known  by  this  mighty  barrier  of  mountains. 
Below  him  extended  a  vast  chaos  of  rock  and  forest,  and  green  savan- 
njus  and  wandering  streams,  while  at  a  distance  the  waters  of  the  prom- 
ised ocean  glittered  in  the  morning  sun."  "At  this  glorious  prospect, 
Va.sco  Nunez  sjink  upon  liis  knees  and  poured  out  thanks  to  God.'' 

He  marked  the  scene  of  the  discovery  with  a  cross  made  from  a  fair 
and  tall  tree,  and  with  a  mound  of  stones,  inscribing,  also,  the  names 
of  the  Spanish  sovereigns  on  the  trees.  Afterwards,  descending  to  the 
sea,  he  marched  into  the  water  with  drawn  sword  and  waving  oanner, 
and  proclaimed  that  tie  had  taken  "  actual  possession  of  these  seas  and 
lands  and  coasts  and  ports  and  islands,  and  was  prepared  to  maintain 
and  defend  them  in  the  name  of  the  Castilian  sovereigns." 

6.  Irving  states  (Columbus  and  his  Companions,  Appendix  XXVIII.) 
that  it  was  the  father  of  Las  Casas  who  accompanied  Columbus  on  his 
second  voyage,  and  that  the  young  priest  first  visited  the  New  World 
in  company  with  Ovando,  in  \'*ri.  In  any  ca.se  he  devotetl  a  long  life  to 
the  service  of  the  oppressed.  "As  a  missionary,  he  traversed  the  wil- 
derness of  the  New  World  in  various  directions,  seeking  to  convert  and 
civilize  them;  as  a  protector  and  champion,  he  made  several  A'oyages 
to  Spain,  vindicated  tlieir  wrongs  before  courts  and  monarchs,  wrote 
volumes  in  their  behalf,  and  exliibited  a  zeal  and  constancy  and  in- 
trepidity worthy  of  an  apostle.  He  died  at  the  advanced  age  of  ninety- 
two  years." 


QUESTIONS    FOR    REVIEW. —  BOOK    II. 


*  Section 

1.  What  are  the  divisions  of  Mediaeval  History?  284 

2.  What    had    the    northern    barbarians  to  do  with  the 

changes  which  introduced  the  Dark  Ages?  283,    285 

3.  What  was  the  power  of  the  Church  in  the  Dark  Ages  ?  285 

4.  Where  were  the  various  tribes,  A.  D.  500?  286-288 

5.  What  nations  successively  governed  Italy?  288,    289 

6.  What  non-German  races  in  Europe  ?  290 

7.  What  was  the  extent  of  the  Eastern  Empire  ?  291 

8.  Describe    the    reign    of   Justinian;    of   Heraclius;    of 

Leo  III.  292-294 

9.  The  Macedonian  Dynasty.  •  295 

10.  Tell  the  story  of  Mohammed.  296-298 

11.  Of  his  successors.  299 

12.  Describe  their  invasions  of  Spain  and  France;    their 

purpose  and  results.  300-302 

13.  The  three  Moslem  empires,  and  their  progress  in 

civilization.  303,    304 

14.  W^hat  was  done  by  Saracen  pirates?  305 

15.  Describe  the  rise  of  the  Carlovingians.  301,  306-308 

16.  The  reign  and  character  of  Charlemagne.  308-313 

17.  What  became  of  his  dominions  after  his  death?  314,   315 

18.  What  is  meant  by  the  Feudal  System?  '316-319 

19.  What    occasioned    the    rise    of    the    Saxon    Line    of 

emperors  ?  320 

20.  By    whom,    and    for    how    long,    were    the    Roman 

emperors  chosen  ?  321 

21.  Describe  the  last  of  the  Saxon,   and  the  greatest  of 

the  Franconian  emperors.  322,   323 

22.  Tell  the  story  of  Henry  IV.  and  Hildebrand.  324,  325 

23.  Describe   the   Northmen   and    their  conquests   in   the 

East.  326,   327 

24.  Their  piracies  and  settlements  in  the  West.  328,   329 

25.  The  rise  of  their  Italian  kingdom.  331 

(260) 


QUESTIONS,— BOOK  II.  261 

Stetion 

26.  Their  conquest  of  England.  332,   "^"^^ 

27.  The  sons  and  nephew  of  William  the  Conqueror.  334,   335 

28.  Who  defentled  France  against  the  Northmen  ?  336,   337 

29.  Describe  France  under  the  first  two  Capets.  338,   339 

30.  The  First  Crusade,  its  causes  and  results.  340  -  346 

31.  Who  had  part  in  the  Second  Crusade?  347 

32.  Describe  Saladin  and  the  Third  Crusade.  348,  349 
T^T^.  What  was  done  in  the  Fourth  Crusade?  351 

34.  By  the  Emperor  FVederic  II.  in  the  Fifth?  352 

35.  What     occasioned    an    alliance    of    Christians    and 

Saracens  ?  353 

36.  Describe  the  Crusades  of  Louis  IX.  of  France.  354,  355 

37.  What  became  of  Acre?  356 

38.  What  were  the  consequences  of  the  Crusades?  357-359 

39.  What  became  of  the  three  military  Orders?  360,   361 

40.  What  relations  existed  between  emperors  and  popes?  362 

41.  Who  were  Guelfs  and  Ghibellines?  363 

42.  Describe  the  wars  of  Frederic  I.  in  Italy.  364 

43.  The  character  and  reign  of  Frederic  II.  365 

44.  Of  the  first  of  the  Hapsburgs.  365 

45.  Tell  the  story  of  Charles  of  Anjou  in  Italy.  366 

46.  Of  Rienzi.  367 

47.  W'hat  can  you  tell  of  Italian  cities  and  merchants?  368-370 

48.  Of  the  German  cities  and  people?  371,  372 

49.  Describe  the  rise  of  the  middle  class.  373 

50.  The  character  of  the  Turks.  303,   374 

51.  Tell  the  story  of  Genghis  Khan.  375 

52.  Describe  the  Mongol  dominion.  376 

53.  The  career  of  Tamerlane.  377 

54.  The  rise  of  the  Ottoman  Empire.  378-380 

55.  The  character  and  reign  of  Henry  II.  of  England.  381,   382 

56.  Of  his  two  sons.  383 

57.  What  great  event  marks  the  reign  of  Henry  III.  ?  384 

58.  Describe  the  first  two  Edwards  in  England.  385,   386 

59.  The  wars  of  Edward  III.  387,  389-406 

60.  The  reign  of  Richard  II.  390 

61.  Name  the  three  Lancastrian  kings.  392-396 

62.  Describe  the  wars  of  the  Lancastrians  in  France.  393,   394 

63.  Who  was  the  King-maker,  and  why  so  called  ?  397 

64.  Name  the  three  Yorkist  kings.  397-399 

65.  What  is  meant  by  the  Wars  of  the  Roses  ?  396 


262  MEDIAEVAL   HISTORY. 

Section 

66.  Describe  their  end  and  their  consequences.  399 

67.  What  events  mark  the  reigns  of  Louis  VI.  and  VII. 

in  France  ?  400 

68.  Describe  the  crusade  against  the  Albigenses.  401,   402 

69.  The  character  and  reign  of  Louis  IX.  403 

70.  Of  Philip  IV.  404 

71.  What  three  kings  ended  the  elder  line  of  Capet?  405 

72.  Describe  the  first  two  Valois  kings.  406,   407 

73.  The  condition  of  France  under  Charles  VI.  408,  409 

74.  What  changes  occurred  under  Charles  VII.  ?  410 

75.  Describe  the  character  and  reign  of  Louis  XI.  411 -414 

76.  The  condition  of  Germany  in  the  14th  and   15th 

centuries.  415 

77.  Who  were  the  seven  electors?  416 

78.  W^hat  sons  of  Charles  IV.  wore  the  imperial  crown?  417,   418 

79.  Describe  the  Council  of  Constance,  its  acts  and  their 

consequences.  418-421 

80.  What  was  done  by  the  councils  of  Basle  and  Ferrara?  421,  422 

81.  What  can  you  tell  of  the  Hapsburgs?  423,   424 

82.  Name  some  great  teachers  in  the  Middle  Ages.  425 

83.  Name  and  describe  the  oldest  universities.  426 

84.  What  changes  occurred  in  European  languages?  427,   428 

85.  What  led  to  the  revival  of  Learning?  429 

86.  What    important    inventions   toward    the  end  of  the 

Middle  Ages?  430,   43 1 

87.  How  were  several  western  nations  consolidated?  432,   433 

88.  Describe  the  reign  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella.  434,   435 

89.  The  Portuguese  voyages  of  discovery.  435 

90.  Tell  the  story  of  Columbus.  436,   437 

91.  Describe  the  New  World  and  its  inhabitants.  438 

92.  Name  other  discoverers  and  their  enterprises.  436-439 


BOOK    III.— MODERN    HISTORY. 


CHAPTER    I. 

THE    FRENCH    IN    ITALY. 


W  French  Troops  Entering  an  Italian  City. 

E  have  seen  that  the  invention  of  gunpowder 
(§  43°)  destroyed  the  military  supremacy  of  knights  and 
nobles,  but  at  first  it  seemed  likely  to  aggrandize  the 
kings  more  than  it  elevated  the  people.  Instead  of  the 
feudal  levies,  which  served,  at  most,  only  forty  days  at  a 
term,  and  were  always  crumbling  away  when  most  needed, 
a  king  could  now  Have  a  regular  standing  army  at  his 
command;    and  long  foreign  wars  became  possible. 

441.    The    first    of    these    modern    expeditions    was    the 
madcap   invasion  of  Italy  by  Charles  VIII.^  of 
France  (§414).      The  pretext  was  in  the  claim  '*^^* 

of  his  house  to  the  crown  of  Naples  (§408),  but  an  imme- 

(263) 


264  MODERN  HISTORY. 

diate  reason  was  that  Lu'dovi'co  Sfor'za*  wanted  to  poison 
his  nephew,  the  duke  of  Milan,  and  thought  that  the  pres- 
ence of  a  French  king  as  h:s  ally  might  prevent  the  pun- 
ishment of  his  crime. 

442.  Alexander  VI. ^  occupied  the  throne  of  St.  Peter 
from  A.  D.  1492  to  1503,  and,  during  his  pontificate,  all 
Italy  was  filled  with  corruption  and  violence.  At  Flor- 
ence the  eloquent  sermons  of  Savon'aro'la,^  a  Dominican 
monk,  effected  a  partial  reformation  of  morals.  He  de- 
clared that  the  French  were  ministers  of  divine  wrath 
against  the  wickedness  of  the  times;  and  welcomed  their 
king  to  Florence;  but,  when  Charles  proposed  to  tax  the 
city  and  recall  the  Medici  (§  370)  who  had  just  been  ex- 
pelled, the  Florentines  flew  to  arms,  and  he  was  forced 
to   retire. 

443.  Charles  passed  through  Rome  to  Naples.  The 
Aragonese  king  (§  366)  abdicated,  his  son  was  expelled 
from  the  capital,  and  the  whole  kingdom  was  gained  by 
the  French  almost  without  a  blow.  But  Charles'  foolish 
vanity  and  arrogance  roused  the  indignation  of  the  Neapol- 
itans; and  by  this  time  all  Italy  had  recovered  from  its 
first  shock  of  alarm,  and  had  united  in  a  league  against 
him.  He  quitted  Naples  for  the  north,  and  the  kingdom 
was  lost  as  speedily  as  it  had  been  won. 

444.  This  foolish  war  kindled  a  thirst  for  conquest  in 
the  kings  of  France,  for  which  Italy  suffered  long.  At 
the  same  time  it  led  to  better  acquaintance  among  the  na- 
tions, which  resulted  in  some  important  alliances.  Philip,^ 
heir  of  the  Netherlands,  married  Joan'na,^  daughter  of  Fer- 
dinand and  Isabella  of  Spain;  while  her  younger  sister, 
Cath'erine,  became  the  wife  of  Arthur  of  England,  and, 
upon  his  death,  of  his  brother  Henry,  the  heir  of  the 
English  crown.  These  two  marriages  may  be  said  to  have 
shaped  the  history  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Charles,^  son 
of    Philip   and    Joanna,    inherited    Spain    and    the    Indies, 


IVARS   IN   ITALY,  265 


southern  Italy  and  the  Netherlands,  and  was  elected  to 
the  imperial  crown,  A.  D.  1519,  whicli  inacic  liim  tlic 
foremost  figure  in  that  eventful  age. 

445.  Charles  VIII.  of  France  left  no  son,  and,  upon 
his   early  death,  the   crown  went  to  his  cousin 

Louis,   duke   of   Orleans.     To   the   royal   claim  '  ^^'^  ' 

upon  Naples,  Louis  XIL  added  a  title  of  his  own  to  the 
duchy  of  Milan,  and  soon  sent  an  army  to  enforce  it. 
All  Lombardy  was  annexed  without  a  blow,  and  the  king- 
dom of  Naples  was  almost  as  easily  reconquered.  But 
Ferdinand  of  Aragon — the  craftiest  monarch  of  his  age  — 
though  an  ally  of  Louis,  gained  possession  of  the  Neapol- 
itan fortresses  by  trickery,  and  drove  out  all  the  French. 
And,  though  Louis  doomed  thousands  of  brave  men  to  die 
of  pestilence  in  the  marshes  of  southern  Italy,  he  never 
succeeded  either  in  regaining  the  kingdom  or  in  punishing 
the  fraud. 

446.  The  League  of  Cambray  united  the  emperor,  the 
pope,  and  the  kings  of  France  and  Spain  against  the 
Venetian  Republic.  It  was  the  first  close  alliance  of 
great  European  powers  since  the  crusades;  and, 

oddly  enough,  its  manifesto  declared  their  main 
object  to  be  a  war  against  the  "Infidel,"  after  having  first 
put  an  end  to  the  ambition  and  greed  of  Venice.  This 
republic  was,  in  fact,  the  only  effective  opponent  of  the 
Turks,  and  had  just  ended  a  war  which  deprived  them  of 
important  dominions  in  the  Levant. 

447.  The  war  of  the  League  was  carried  on  with  fright- 
ful brutality.  In  one  instance  6,000  men,  women,  and 
children  were  smothered  in  a  cave  near  Padua,  the  French 
soldiers  having  deliberately  kindled  a  fire  at  its  entrance. 
The  pope,  Ju'lius  II.,  suddenly  turned  the  balance  by  quit- 
ting his  allies  and  forming  a  "Holy  League," 

with    Spain    and    Venice,    against    the    French. 

Untamed  by  old  age  or  his   i)eaceful   profession,  he   con- 


266  MODERN  HISTORY. 

stantly  appeared  on  horseback  at  the  head  of  his  troops, 
enduring  all  the  hardships  of  a  severe  winter.  Gaston  de 
Foix,  the  French  commander,  was  called  the  "  Thunder- 
bolt of  Italy"  on  account  of  his  swift,  decisive  movements. 
He  gained  many  victories,  but  he  was  killed  in  the  great 
battle  of  Ravenna,  A.  D.  15 12,  and  a  few  weeks  later 
only  three  towns  and  three  fortresses  remained  to  the 
French  of  all  their  conquests  in  Italy. 

448.  The  warlike  Pope  Julius  was  succeeded,  in  15 13, 
by  the  Cardinal  de'  Medici,  who  took  the  name  of  Leo  X. 
He  resembled  his  father,  Lorenzo  (§370)  in  the  perfec- 
tion of  his  tastes  in  art  and  literature,  and  in  his  liberal 
and  courteous  manners.  But  he  was  a  pagan  in  faith  and 
a  libertine  in  morals;  and  he  used  his  great  power  chiefly 
to  enrich  his  family,  who  were  again  supreme  in  Florence. 
Louis  XII.  died  in  15 15,  and  his  rival,  Ferdinand,  in 
1 5 16.  Ferdinand  was  the  most  successful  monarch  of  his 
age,  but  his  character  is  stained  by  falsehood,  ingratitude, 
and  base  injustice.*    (see  note,  p.   257). 

449.  Francis  I.  (A.  D.  15 15 -1547),  succeeding  his 
cousin  as  king  of  France,  lost  no  time  in  renewing  the 
war  in  Italy.  His  generals  conducted  an  army  of  64,000 
men  across  the  Alps  by  paths  trodden  hitherto  only  by 
mountain  goats,  and  surprised  the  enemy  by  a  sudden 
appearance  upon  the  Lombard  plain.  The  battle  of  Ma- 
rignano  regained  the  Milanese  duchy  for  Francis. 

450.  The  emperor  Maximilian  died  in  15 19,  and  the 
seven  electors  bestowed  the  crown  upon  Charles  of  Spain. 
In  his  envy  and  disappointment,  Frai^cis  sought  the  alli- 
ance of  Henry  VIII.  of  England  against  the  new  emperor, 

and  had  with  him,  near  Calais,  a  famous  inter- 
view, known  as  the  Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold, 
from  the  brilliant  display  of  trappings  on  either  side.     But 
the  emperor  was,  at  the  same  time,  courting  the  friendship 
of   Henry   and    his   great    minister  Wolsey,   promising    his 


FRANCIS  I.    A    rR ISOMER.  267 

influence  to  make  the  latter  pope  at  the  next  vacancy. 
Henry  tried  to  make  peace  betwci  n  \\\>  two  great  allies; 
but  the  causes  of  enmity  were  too  deeply  seated,  and  the 
contests  for  Burgundy,  Milan,  and  Naples  broadened  into 
an  almost  continuous  war  of  two  hundred  years  between 
France  and  the  House  of  Austria. 

451,  In  152 1,  Francis  lost  the  duchy  of  Milan,  and 
Pope  Leo  X.  is  said  to  have  died  of  joy  at  the  news. 
He  was  succeeded,  in  the  papal  chair,  by  Adrian,  tutor  of 
Charles  V.  —  an  honest  man,  who  purified  the  Roman 
court  during  the  few  months  of  his  reign.  Francis  was 
just  ready  for  a  new  invasion  of  Italy,  when  he  was  de- 
serted by  his  kinsman  and  most  powerful  subject,  the 
Duke  of  Bourbon.  Having  been  injured  and  bitterly  in- 
sulted by  the  king's  mother,  Bourbon  went  over  to  the 
emperor,  and  agreed  with  him  and  the  English  king, 
upon  a  triple  partition  of  France.  Henry  VIII.  actually 
advanced  within  thirty-three  miles  of  Paris;  but  his  allies 
failed  to  support  him,  and  France  was  not  divided. 

452.  In  1524,  Francis  marched  into  Italy  with  every 
prospect  of  victory.  He  was  defeated,  however,  in  a  great 
battle  before  Pavia,  and  was  made  a  prisoner.  For  a  year 
he  was  held  a  captive  in  Spain,  and  finally  released  only 
upon  his  promise  to  restore  Burgundy  (§413)  to  Charles. 
As  soon  as  he  was  free,  Francis  broke  his  royal  word,  and 
hostilities  were  renewed.  He  gained  little,  although  Pavia 
was  taken  and  given  up  to  pillage  in  revenge  for  his  disaster 
before  its  walls.  A  truce  was  agreed  upon  in  the  treaty  of 
Cambray — known  as  the  Ladies'  Peace,  because  it  was  ne- 
gotiated by  the  emperor's  aunt  and  the  king's  mother,  A. 
D.    1529. 

Trace  the  march  of  Charles  VIII.  through  Italy.  Point  out 
Ravenna.  Padua.  Pavia.  Milan.  Venice.  The  dominions  of 
Charles  V.,  §444. 

Read  Villari's  Life  of  Savonarola;  Ranke's  History  of  the  Popes; 
Dyer's  History  of  Modern  Europe,   Vol.    I. 


268  MODERN  HISTORY. 


NOTES. 

1.  Charles  VIII.,  son  of  Louis  XI.,  and  Charlotte  of  Savoy,  became 
king  by  his  father's  death,  in  148;i;  but,  as  he  was  only  in  his  14th  year, 
the  regency  had  been  committed  to  his  elder  sister,  Anne  of  Beaujeu. 
Either  from  jealousy  or  simple  indilTerence,  Louis  had  paid  no  attention 
to  his  son's  education;  and,  to  the  power  and  duties  of  a  king,  Charles 
could  only  bring  an  untrained  and  ignorant  mind.  No  wonder  that 
his  judgment  was  constantly  at  fault,  and  that  his  impulses,  though 
sometimes  generous  and  kindly,  led  him  into  ruinous  undertakings. 
The  festivities  with  which  he  celebrated  his  departure  for  Italy,  used 
up  the  entire  sum  which  was  to  have  defrayed  the  expense  of  the 
war,  and  he  could  only  proceed  by  borrowing  and  pawning  the  jew- 
els of  his  kinswomen,  the  Duchess  of  Savoy  and  the  Marchioness  of 
Montferrat.  The  weakness  and  corruption  of  Italy,  rather  than  his 
own  power,  led  to  his  rapid  conquests,  and  he  had  no  ability  to  keep 
what  he  had  so  easily  won. 

Charles  married  Anne,  Duchess  of  Bretagne ;  their  three  little  children 
died  before  an  accident  put  an  end  to  his  own  life  in  1498. 

2.  Ludovico  Sforza,  or  Louis  the  Moor— so  called  from  his  swarthy 
complexion— was  one  of  those  adventurers,  not  uncommon  in  his  day, 
who  gained  wealth  and  power  by  practicing  upon  the  weaknesses  of  sov- 
ereigns. His  brother,  the  Duke  of  Milan,  was  murdered  in  1476,  leaving 
a  little  son  eight  years  old.  The  widowed  Duchess  was  recognized  as 
Regent;  but  Ludovico  wrested  the  power  from  her  hands,  imprisoned 
his  nephew,  and,  when  the  King  of  Naples  interfered,  invited  the  French 
king  to  invade  Italy  and  make  good  his  title  to  the  southern  kingdom. 
Ludovico  was  successful  for  a  time,  but,  in  1499,  was  captured  by  Louis 
XL,  and  spent  the  last  11  years  of  his  life  as  a  prisoner  in  France. 

3.  Alexander  VI.  was  a  Spaniard  whose  secular  name  was  Rodrigo 
Boi^ia.  He  first  distinguished  himself  as  a  lawyer,  afterwards  in  mili- 
tary service;  but,  upon  his  uncle's  elevation  to  the  papal  throne,  he 
entered  the  Church  and  was  made  a  cardinal  at  the  early  age  of  26.  He 
became  Pope  in  1492,  the  same  year  that  Columbus  discovered  America, 
and  it  was  by  his  edict  that  the  newly  found  continents  and  islands 
were  divided  between  the  Spaniards  and  the  Portuguese. 

4.  Savonarola  was  born  at  Ferrara,  1452,  and  became  Prior  of  San 
Marco,  in  Florence,  in  1491.  He  used  his  great  power  in  advocacy  at 
once  of  republican  freedom  and  of  Christian  morality.  Lorenzo  de' 
Medici,  who  greatly  admired  him,  made  many  efforts  to  win  the  elo- 
quent prior  to  his  side;  but  Savonarola  was  firm,  and  even  refused  his 
blessing  to  Lorenzo  when  dying,  except  upon  the  condition  that  he 
would  restore  liberty  to  Florence.  After  the  expulsion  of  the  Medici, 
in  1494,  the  liberal  party,  with  Savonarola  at  its  head,  gained  ascend- 
ancy, and  established  a  new  constitution,  based  upon  Christian  princi- 
ples. Abjuring  the  former  luxury  and  license  of  Florentine  life,  this 
party  called  its  members  Piagnoni,  or  weepers.  But  its  extreme  meas- 
ures led  to  a  re-action ;  Alexander  VI.  interfered,  and  Savonarola,  re- 
sisting his  authority,  Avas  "  arrested,  tortured,  condemned,  and  strangled 
in  May,  1498." 

5.  Philip  was  the  son  of  Maximilian  I.  and  the  Duchess  Mary,  of 
Burgundy  (H24),  and  inherited  from  his  mother  the  seventeen  wealthy 
provinces  known  collectively  as  the  Netherlands  or  Low  Countries. 
They  are  named  in  g512,  note. 

6.  In  1504,  upon  the  death  of  Queen  Isabella,  Joanna  was  crowned 
Queen  of  Castile  and  Leon;  but,  so  feeble  was  her  mind,  that  the  royal 
power  was  exercised,  first  by  her  husband,  afterwards  by  her  father, 
and  finally  by  her  son.  Upon  Philip's  death,  in  1506,  she  became  totally 
insane,  and  spent  the  nearly  fifty  years  that  remained  of  her  life  in  a 
dismal  seclusion.  She  died  in  1555,  and  her  son  abdicated  the  sam^ 
year  (H70). 

Her  sister  Catherine,  an  intelligent  and  amiable  princess,  suffered 
even  greater  sorrows  during  the  last  years  of  her  life  (gg  490-492). 


NOTES. 


7.  Tho  Kfoat  events  in  the  life  of  Clinrles  are  told  In  the  text  (gj^-liJO- 
471).  He  was  a  dull  youth,  slnKKish  in  nilud  and  weak  In  ImkI.v;  biit  UIh 
ntotto,  Sou  Ihnn  (Not  Yet),  which  he  assumed  at  the  a^e  of  IH,  showed, 

!>erhaps,  his  <'(iiisf|ousiu'ss  of  unawakencd  iM)wer.    Tni  years  later,  ho 
<M)k  the  motto,  Jiu.s  CUni  (  Moih'  Heyond). 

Motley  ast-rilK's  his  populnrity.  aUMtun  other  causes,  to  "a  slunularlv 
fortunate  nutnner.  He  spoke  (Jernuin,  Spanish,  Itjilian,  French,  anil 
KlenUsh,  and  couldassunie  the  characteristics  of  each  country  as  easily 
as  he  c«udd  ust>  Us  laiiKUajje.  He  couhl  be  stately  with  Spaliianls,  fa- 
nUliar  with  Fh'niluKs,  witty  with  Italians.  He  coidd  strike  <lown  a 
hull  in  the  rinp  like  a  matador  at  Madrid,  or  wiJi  tlw  i)rize  in  the 
tourney  like  a  knight  of  old;  lu^  could  ride  at  the  rinn  with  the  Flem- 
ish nof)les,  hit  tin*  ponlnjay  with  his  cross-how  amonn  Antwerp  artl- 
Kjins,  ordrink  beer  an«l  exchange  rud»>  Jests  with  tin-  booi-s  of  Brabant. 
For  virtues  such  a.s  these,  his  urave  crimes  ajfainst  (lod  and  nnui  have 
been  palliated,  as  if  oppression  becjimc!  more  tolerai>le  Ix'cause  the  op- 
press«)r  was  an  aecomplislieil  linguist  and  a  good  marksman.    Hut  the 

freat  reason  for  his  popularity,  no  doubt,  lay  in  liis  military  geniuR. 
harles  was  Inferior  to  no  general  of  his  age.  He  was  constitutionally 
fearles.s,  and  he  possessed  great  energy  and  endurance.  He  was  ever 
the  tlrst  to  arin  when  a  battle  was  to  be  fought,  and  the  last  to  take 
otr  his  harness.  He  was  calm  In  great  reverses.  The  restles.s  energy  and 
magnificent  tranquility  of  his  character  made  him  a  hero  among  princes, 
an  idol  with  his  officers,  a  popular  favorite  every-where."— .«we  of  the 
Dutch  Republic,  I,  117. 

8.  "The  crown  passed  at  length  to  Francis  of  Angoul^nie.  There 
were  in  his  nature  seeds  of  nobleness— seeds  destined  to  bear  little  fruit. 
Chivalry  and  honor  were  always  on  his  lips;  but  Francis  the  First,  a 
forsworn  gentleman,  a  despotic  king,  vainglorious,  selfish,  sunk  in  de- 
baucheries, was  but  the  type  of  an  era  which  retained  the  forms  of 
the  Middle  Age  without  its  soul,  and  added  to  a  still  prevailing  barbar- 
ism the  pestilential  vices  which  hung  fog-like  around  the  dawn  of 
civilization.  Yet  he  esteemed  arts  and  letters,  and,  still  more,  coveted 
the  iclat  which  they  could  give.  The  light  which  was  beginning  to 
pierce  the  feudal  darkness  gathered  its  rays  around  his  throne.  Italy 
was  rewarding  the  robbei-s  who  preyed  on  her  with  the  trea.sures  of 
her  knowledge  and  her  culture;  and  Italian  genius,  of  whatever  stamp, 
found  ready  patronage  at  the  hands  of  Francis.  Among  artists,  philos- 
ophers, and  men  of  letters,  enrolled  In  his  service,  stands  the  humbler 
name  of  a  Florentine  navigator.  .John  Verrazzano. 

"The  wealth  of  the  Indies  was  pouring  into  the  cofTers  of  Charles 
the  Fifth,  and  the  exploits  of  Cortez  had  given  new  luster  to  his  crown 
(24.S8).  Francis  the  Firet  begrudged  liis  hated  rival  the  glories  and  profits 
of  the  New  World.  He  would  fain  have  his  share  of  the  prize;  and 
Verrazzano,  with  four  ships,  was  dispatclied  to  seek  out  a  passiige  west- 
ward to  the  rich  kingdom  of  Cathay."  Sailing  from  Madeira,  "in  49 
days  they  neared  a  low  shore,  not  far  from  the  site  of  Wilmington,  in 
North  Carolina.  'A  newe  land  ! '  exclaims  the  voyager, '  never  before  seen 
of  any  man,  either  auncient  or  moderne '  .  .  .  V  errazzano's  next  rest- 
ing-olace  was  the  Bay  of  New  Y'ork.  Rowing  up  in  his  boat  through 
the  Narrows,  under  the  steep  heights  of  Staten  Island,  he  saw  the  har- 
bor within  dotted  with  canoes  of  the  feathered  natives  coming  from 
the  shore  to  welcome  him.  .  .  .  Following  the  shores  of  Ixjng  Island, 
they  came  to  Block  Island,  and  thence  to  the  harbor  of  Newport.  Here 
they  stayed  fifteen  days,  most  courteously  received  by  the  inhabit- 
ants. .  .  .  Again  the.v  spread  their  sails  and  .  .  .  steered  along  tho 
rugged  coasts  of  New  England,  and  surveyed,  ill-pleased,  the  surf-beaten 
rocks,  the  pine-tree  and  the  fir,  the  shadows  and  the  gloom  of  mighty 
forests.    .    .    . 

"V^errazzano  coasted  the  sea-board  of  Maine,  and  sailed  northward 
as  far  as  Newfoundland,  whence,  provisions  failing,  he  steered  for 
France.  He  had  not  found  a  pas.sage  to  Cathay,  but  he  had  explored 
the  American  coast  from  the  ;i4th  to  the  .')Oth  [degree],  and,  at  various 

Joints,  had  penetrated  several  leagues  into  the  country.  On  the  Hth  of 
uly  he  wrote  from  Dieppe  to  the  king  the  earliest  description  known 
to  exist  of  the  shores  of  the  United  States."— Par/rv/w/n,  IHoncers  of  France 
m  the  New  World,  pp.  174-179. 


CHAPTER  II. 

CHARLES  V.  AND  THE  REFORMATION  —  THE  TURKS. 

HE    separation    of    most    of    the 

northern  nations  of  Europe  from 

the    Roman     Church    was    the 

greatest   event  of  the  sixteenth 

century.     Its  causes  had  been  at 

work  ever  since  the  time  of  the 

Crusades.    Wealth  and  undisputed 

power  had  brought  abuses  into  the 

church;  and  the  more  men  learned 

to  think   for  themselves,  the  less 

they  were  able  to  believe  that  such 

])0i)es  as  Alexander  VI.  were  the 

true  representatives  of  Christ  upon 

earth. 

454.  The  principal  leader  of  the 
Reformation  was  Martin  lAither, 
a  German  miner's  son.  In  his  youth  he  was  a  charity 
scholar,  earning  his  bread  by  singing  hymns  from  house 
to  house.  The  sudden  death  of  a  friend  aroused  his 
religious  feelings,  and,  cjuitting  the  study  of  the  law,  he 
became  a  monk.  Visiting  Rome,  he  saw  evidences  of  the 
corruption  of  the  clergy,  which  filled  him  with  horror. 

455.  The  sale  of  ''Indulgences"  soon  attracted  the  atten- 
tion and  excited  the  opposition  of  Luther.  At  first  money 
had  been  paid  merely  as  a  commutation  for  temporal  penal- 
ties. The  kings  of  the  Middle  Ages  had  assuaged  their 
remorse  for  deeds  of  violence  by  erecting  costly  and  mag- 
nificent churches,  which  are  still  the  greatest  ornaments  of 
(270) 


A  German  Nobleman. 


MAR  TIN  L  UTHER.  2  7 1 

central  Europe.  Humbler  penitents  contributed  in  tlieir 
measure  to  the  Church,  and  hoped  by  faith  and  sacrifice  to 
have  made  their  peace  with  Heaven.  But  the  age  of  the 
Renaissance  regarded  matters  from  a  more  worldly  point  of 
view.  Pope  Leo  X.  wanted  immense  sums  of  money  to 
support  the  artists  who  were  beautifying  Rome,  and  an  in- 
creased sale  of  indulgences  afforded  the  needed  supply. 

456.  Lu'ther,  now  a  famous  professor  at  Wittenberg, 
l^reached  boldly  against  this  traffic,  and  the  good  sense 
of  the  German  people  sustained  him,  even  when  he  nailed 
to    the    church    door   his   95    theses,    declaring 

that  remission  of  sins  is  from  God  alone.  He 
was  summoned  to  Rome  to  be  tried  for  heresy,  but  his 
sovereign,  the  elector  of  Saxony,^  forbade  him  to  go.  The 
poi)e  excommunicated  him,  and  the  emperor  cited  him  to 
ai)pear  before  the  diet  at  Worms.  Here  he  firmly  refused 
to  retract  any  of  his  teachings  unless  they  could  be  refuted 
from  the  Bible.  Many  urged  the  emj^eror  to  imprison 
him  for  his  boldness;  but  Charles  respected  his  own  word, 
which  was  pledged  for  Luther's  safety,  and  replied,  **No, 
I  will  not  blush  like  Sigismund  at  Constance"  (§419). 
The  reformer  was,  however,  declared  an  outlaw,  together 
with  all  who  should  shelter  him,  or  print,  buy,  sell,  or  read 
his  books.  Seeing  his  danger,  the  elector  Frederic  ordered 
him  to  be  shut  up  in  the  Wartburg,  where  he  spent  a  year 
in  making  a  German  translation  of  the  Scriptures.^ 

457.  Luther  was  called  from  his  retreat  by  news  of 
disorderly  movements  among  the  people,  who  hoped  that 
the  "new  religion"  was  going  to  right  all  their  wrongs  at 
once.  Some  of  them  even  exi)ected  an  equal  distribution 
of  proi)erty,  and  lx?gan  to  plunder  churches,  convents,  and 
castles.  While  urging  the  princes  and  nobles  to  do  justice, 
and  provide  for  the  education  of  the  people,  Luther  advised 
the  latter  to  submit  to  their  lawful  rulers.  Order  was  not 
restored  without  the  loss  of  100,000  lives. 


272  MODERN  HISTORY. 

458.  While  the  pope  himself  was  a  prisoner  in  the  hands 
of  the  emperor  (§461),  and  the  Turks  were  threatening 
all  Christendom  alike,  Charles  was  compelled  to  favor  the 
reformers,  who  united  themselves  in  the  league  of  Torgau, 
1526.  Three  years  later,  the  diet  at  Spires  decreed  that 
no  changes  from  the  worship  and  doctrine  of  the  old 
church  should  be  allowed.  Nine  German  princes  and 
fifteen  free  cities //r^/^^/r^^ against  this  decree;  whence  the 
reforming  party  took  the  name  of  Protestants. 

459.  By  this  time,  Denmark  and  Sweden,  as  well  as  a 
great  part  of  Germany,  had  accepted  the  doctrines  of 
Luther.  A  similar  reformation  had  been  going  on  in 
Switzerland  under  Zwingli,"*  who  persuaded  the  Council  of 
Zurich  to  declare  the  Scriptures  to  be  the  only  standard 
of  faith.  In  French  Switzerland,  Farel'^  and  Cal'vin**  con- 
tinued the  work  which  Zwingli  had  begun;  while  in  France 
itself,  a  numerous  party,  including  the  king's  sister,  Queen 
Margaret  of  Navarre,^ believed  in  the  reformed  doctrines. 

460.  In  the  meantime,  all  Europe  trembled  at  the  prog- 
ress of  Sol'yman  the  Magnificent,^ the  ablest  of  the  Turkish 
monarchs.  Three  great  fortresses  of  Hungary  were  taken 
by  him  in  the  summer  of  1521;  and,  the  following  year, 
the  island  of  Rhodes  was  surrendered,  after  a  long  and 
heroic  defense  by  the  Knights  of  St.  John  (§§346,  360, 
361).  In  vain  Pope  Adrian  tried  to  unite  the  princes  of 
Europe  in  a  crusade;  their  mutual  enmities  were  too  strong. 
In  1523  he  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  Clem'ent  VII., 
one  of  the  Medici. 

461.  Clement's  pontificate  was  marked  by  greater  losses 
and  calamities  than  ever  pope  endured  before.  At  its 
beginning  he  was  besieged  by  Cardinal  Colon'na,  who  plun- 
dered  his   palace   and   the   church  of  St.   Peter;    the   next 

year  a  Spanish  and  German    army  took    Rome 

■  ^^^^'      by  storm,  and   for    two  weeks   made   havoc   of 

the  treasures  which  all  Europe  had  been  pouring  into  it  for 


so  LYMAN  THE   MAGNIFICENT,  273 

centuries  in  ofTerings  of  devotion.  Pope  Clement  was  im- 
prisoned half  a  year,  and  was  finally  released  only  upon 
paying  an  enormous  ransom,  and  promising  to  convene  a 
general  council  for  the  reformation  of  the  Church.  This 
promise  he  broke;  and,  before  his  death,  England  and  a 
great  part  of  northern  Europe  (§459)  cast  off  their  obedi- 
ence to  the  popes. 

462.  Solyman  had  by  this  time  subdued  Egypt,  and 
nearly  conquered  Persia:  turning  again  to  the  westward, 
he  declared  himself  lord  of  all  the  dominions  of  Constan- 
tine.  The  Hungarians  were  unable  to  resist  him.  In  the 
fatal    battle    of   Mohacz   their    young   king  was 

slain,  and   his   army  destroyed.      Their    capital  "^'  *^^  * 

was  taken  by  the  Turks,  and  all  its  treasures  went  to 
enrich  Constantinople.  Instead  of  uniting  even  now,  the 
Christian  princes  spent  their  strength  in  a  dispute  over 
the  vacant  crowns  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia.  The  latter 
was  conferred  upon  Ferdinand  of  Austria,  the  emperor's 
brother  and  successor  in  the  imperial  title;  the  former  was 
contested  by  John  Zapd'ya,  the  greatest  of  the  Hungarian 
nobles,  who  was  aided  by  the  French  king,  the  pope,  and, 
finally,  by  Solyman  himself. 

463.  Zapolya  did  homage  (§317)  for  his  crown  to  the 
sultan,  whom  he  acknowledged  as  successor  of  the  eastern 
Caesars;  then  accompanied  him  to  Buda,  and  helped  to 
put  its  Christian  garrison  to  the  sword!  Vienna  itself  was 
besieged  by  the  Turkish  fleet  and  army,  but  was  so  well 
defended  that  Solyman  was  compelled  to  depart. 

The  threatening  attitude  of  the  Turks  compelled  Charles 
V.  to  favor  the  Protestants,  who  were  now  united  in  the 
league  of  Smalcald.  Full  liberty  was  granted  to  the 
doctrines  of  the  Augsburg  Confession,  lately  adopted  as 
the  standard  of  Lutheran  faith. 

464.  In  1532,  Solyman  marched  into  Hungary  at  the 
head  of  350,000  men   and   an  immense  train  of  artillery. 

Hi8t-18. 


274  MODERN  HISTORY. 

But  he  spent  his  forces  in  trifling  operations,  and  the  next 
year  made  peace  with  Charles.  He  still  kept  his  "  flying 
squadrons"  of  pirates  in  the  Mediterranean,  whose  most 
formidable  chief  was  Barbaros'sa,  sultan  of  Algiers.  Along 
the  northern  coasts  no  man  slept  in  security,  for  at  any 
hour  the  corsairs  might  appear  and  drag  away  as  captives 
any  whom  they  might  find.  Thousands  of  these  wretched 
victims  were  in  slavery  on  the  African  coast. 

465.  In  1535,  the  emperor  undertook,  in  person,  the 
punishment  of  this  freebooter.  Landing  near  Tunis  he 
stormed  its  fortress,  routed  Barbarossa  in  a  pitched  batde, 
occupied  the  city,  and  restored  its  rightful  sovereign,  whom 
Barbarossa  had  expelled.  He  moreover  set  free  a  vast 
multitude  of  Christian  captives,  whom  he  clothed  and  sent 
home  to  Europe.  Francis  I.,  though  many  of  his  own 
subjects  were  thus  liberated,  hated  Charles  all  the  more 
for  his  great  success.  He  took  Barbarossa  into  his  own 
pay,  and  renewed  hostilities  with  the  emperor.  To  guard 
against  invasion,  he  laid  waste  a  rich  and  beautiful  tract 
of  his  own  dominion,  on  the  lower  Rhone.  Villages  were 
destroyed,  crops  burned,  and  wells  poisoned.  Charles 
marched  to  besiege  Marseilles;  but  this  horrid  plan  of 
defense  was  too  successful,  and  he  had  to  retreat  with  a 
loss  of  30,000  men. 

466.  Upon  the  death  of  Zapolya,  Solyman  seized  Buda, 
the  capital  of  Hungary,  which  for  150  years  continued  to 
be  a  Mohammedan  city,  both  in  religion  and  government. 
A  second  African  expedition,  made  by  Charles  V.  in  1542, 
resulted  in  failure.  His  fleet  was  destroyed  by  tempests,  and 
his  army  by  famine  and  pestilence.  The  king  of  France, 
rejoicing  in  these  disasters,  raised  five  great  armies  to  attack 
the  various  dominions  of  the  emperor;  but  his  enterprises 
ended  in  much  loss  and  very  little  gain.  His  Turkish  allies 
meanwhile  found  a  ready  market  at  Marseilles  for  the  Chris- 
tian slaves  whom  they  carried  away  from  the  coasts  of  Italy ! 


THE  FlRSiT  RRLIGTOUS  WAR.  275 


467.  Again,  as  in  the  days  of  Charles  Martel  (§§300-302), 
it  seemed  possible  that  the  Mediterranean  would  be  sur- 
rounded by  a  great  Mohammedan  empire;  but  the  prospect 
was  far  more  terrible  than  before,  for  the  Turks  were  a 
brutal  race  compared  with  the  refined  and  intellectual 
Saracens.  All  the  Christian  powers  were  indignant  at  the 
alliance  of  Francis  I.  with  these  ])ir;iu^>;  nnd  Henry  VIII. 
of  England  again  joined  (  liarlcs  \'.  in  an 
invasion  of  France.  He  captured  Jknilogne,  '  '^^^* 
while  the  emperor  took  several  towns  and  fortresses,  and 
advanced  within  two  days'  march  of  Paris. 

468.  Francis  was  now  forced  to  abandon  his  unnatural 
allies:  he  made  peace  with  Charles,  and  promised  to  join 
him  in  the  suppression  of  heresy.  The  Vaudois,  a  harm 
less  people,  who  occupied  the  high  Alpine  valleys  between 
France  and  Piedmont,  were  the  first  sufferers  from  this 
new  alliance.  They  had  kept  the  simple  faith  of  the 
early  Christian  ages,  and  were  glad  to  find  themselves  in 
substantial  agreement  with  the  Reformers.  The  armies  of 
Francis  now  pursued  them  like  wild  beasts  among  their 
mountains,  hurling  mothers  with  their  children  from  the 
cliffs,  and  dragging  off  men  to  be  chained  in  the  royal 
galleys.  In  many  towns  of  France  and  the  Netherlands 
persons  were  burned  to  death  for  heresy. 

469.  In  December,  1545,  the  Council  of  Trent  was 
opened  (§461).  But,  without  waiting  for  its  decisions, 
the  emperor  collected  a  great  army,  and  made  war  on  the 
Protestant  princes.  By  a  mixture  of  violence  and  fraud, 
he  captured  the  elector  of  Saxony,  and  tlie  landgrave 
of  Hesse,  and  bestowed  the  dominions  of  the  former  on 
Duke  Maurice  of  Saxony,  whose  descendants  still  retain 
them.  The  duke  was  a  cousin  of  the  rightful  elector,  who, 
while  leading  the  Protestant  armies,  trusted  him  to  govern 
and  defend  his  dominions.  His  betrayal  of  the  trust  was 
almost  a  death   blow   to    the    Protestants.      But    Maurice, 


276  MODERN  HISTORY. 

having  gained  all  he  wanted,  turned  against  the  emperor, 
and  nearly  made  him  prisoner  by  a  sudden  movement. 
The  bishops  in  council  at  Trent  made  a  hasty  retreat,  and 
only  met  again  after  ten  years'  vacation.  This  first  religious 
war  in  Germany  was  ended  by  the  peace  of  Passau,  1552. 
The  Smalcaldic  League  was  dissolved,  and  its  forces  went  to 
fight  the  Turks,  who  were  overrunning  all  southern  Hungary, 
and  ravaging  the  Mediterranean  coasts  and  islands. 

470.  In  1555,  the  sick  and  weary  emperor  resolved  to 
throw  off  the  burden  of  public  care,  and  snatch  a  little 
repose  before  his  death.  His  two  rivals  were  already 
dead.  He  invested  his  son  Philip  with  the  lordship 
of  all  the  Netherlands  and  the  crown  of  Spain,  while 
he  recommended  his  brother  Ferdinand  (§462)  to  the 
electors  for  the  imperial  crown.  He  then  took  up  his 
residence  in  a  convent,  at  Yuste,  in  southern  Spain,  where 
he  amused  himself  with  gardening,  watch-making,  and 
music;  though  he  still  kept  a  keen  eye  on  public  affairs, 
and  aided  his  children  by  his  advice.  Two  years  after 
his  retirement,  he  was  seized  with  a  strange  desire  to 
celebrate  his  own  funeral.  Clothed  as  a  monk,  he  joined 
the  chant  of  the  brotherhood  about  his  empty  coffin,  but 
within  a  month  this  solemn  farce  was  turned  into  reality. 
He  died  on  the  21st  of  September,  1558. 

471.  The  reign  of  Charles  V.  was  one  of  the  most 
eventful  periods  in  history.  Conquest  and  colonization  in 
America,  and  struggles  of  religious  principles  in  Europe, 
had  made  the  world  on  which  he  closed  his  eyes,  in  1558, 
a  different  one  from  that  on  which  they  had  opened  with 
the  century.  The  Reformation  had  at  one  time  affected 
Italy  and  Spain,  Austria  and  Hungary,  no  less  than  north- 
ern Germany  and  England;  but  it  was  now  checked  in  all 
the  dominions  of  the  Spanish-Austrian  family. 

472.  The  new  society  of  Jesuits  had  much  to  do  with 
this  counter-reformation. ,    Their  founder  was  Ignatius  Loy- 


THE   SOCIETY  OF  JESUS.  277 


o'la,  a  Spanish  cavalier,  who  in  his  youth  had  been  severely 
wounded  in  battle.  While  slowly  recovering,  his  mind, 
full  of  remorse  for  past  sins,  plunged  eagerly  into  schemes 
for  atonement  by  extending  the  Christian  faith  into  regions 
of  heathendom.  So,  while  Luther  was  shaking  the  dominion 
of  the  church  by  his  preaching,  Loyola  was  preparing  a 
movement  which  reestablished  and  extended  its  power. 
The  Jesuits  differed  from  most  of  the  other  religious 
orders  by  their  liberal  studies,  which  developed  all  their 
talents,  and  made  them  the  ablest  of  teachers.  The 
influence  which  they  gained  over  the  princes  and  leading 
minds  of  Catholic  Europe,  may  be  read  in  the  history  of 
the  next  three  centuries.  The  General  of  the  order, 
residing  at  Rome,  was  made  acquainted  with  each  mem- 
ber's character  and  talents;  and  while  he  made  use  of  the 
commanding  intellect  of  some  to  manage  kings  and  em- 
perors, he  could  employ  the  humble  piety  of  others  in 
missions  to  the  savages  of  America,  and  the  crowded  cities 
of  China  and  Japan. 

Point  out  the  dominions  of  Charles  V.  on  Map  9.  §?444»  45^* 
The  conquests  of  Solyman.  Trace  the  expeditions  of  Charles  V. 
Point  out  the  country  of  the  Vaudois.  Spires,  Worms,  Augsburg, 
Trent. 

Read  Ranke's  History  of  the  Popes,  and  History  of  Germany 
during  the  Reformation;  Robertson's  Life  of  Charles  the  Fifth, 
edited  by  Prescott ;   Co.xe's  House  of  Austria. 

NOTES. 

1.  Frederic  the  "Wise  was  among  the  greatest  German  princes  of  his 
day.  On  the  death  of  Maximlllau,  in  lolO,  the  Saxon  Elector  became 
regent  of  the  Empire,  and  was  even  offered  the  imperial  crown;  but, 
feeling  that  he  had  not  the  means  to  act  with  the  energy  which  the 
times  demanded,  he  steadily  refused  it.  and  gave  his  vote  to  Charles 
of  Austria.  Under  this  obligation  to  the  wise  Elector,  Charles  could 
not  immediately  use  extreme  measures  against  Luther,  who  was  a  fa- 
vorite professor  in  the  new  univei-sity  of  Wittenberg,  founded  by  Fred- 
eric, in  1.^2.  It  is  ssUd  that  Charles,  in  later  years,  regretted  that  he  had 
not  put  an  end  to  Luther's  teachings  by  condemning  him  to  the  stake; 
but  now  he  quieted  the  feiirs  of  the  people  by  re-afflrming  his  safe  con- 
duct, remarking  that  "If  truth  and  faith  abode  nowhere  e&e,  they  ought 
ever  to  find  a  i-efuge  in  tlie  courts  of  princes." 


278 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


2.  Luther's  version  of  the  Scriptures  first  gave  literary  forms  and 
permanence  to  the  German  language.  It  was  closely  modeled  upon  the 
speech  of  the  common  people;  "How  does  the  mother  say  it?"  was  the 
question  which  he  continually  asked  of  his  friends,  whose  notes,  taken 
in  the  cottages  of  the  poor,  gave  him  valuable  aid  in  his  great  under- 
taking. 

The  New  Testament  appeared  in  1522,  shortly  after  his  friendly  de- 
tention in  the  Wartburg;  the  Old  Testament,  in  1534. 

Luther  was  highly  esteemed  by  many  great  German  princes,  who 
relied  upon  his  counsel  in  matters  affecting  their  dominions.  He  died 
in  1546,  the  year  after  the  opening  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  in  the  63d 
year  of  liis  age. 

Though  of  moderate  stature,  Luther  hadacommandingpresence;  his 
eyes  were  dark  and  brilliant,  his  voice  rich,  clear,  and  of  great  power. 
Decision  and  enei-gy  marked  every  movement.  Carlyle  has  said  of  him, 
"No  more  valiant  man  ever  lived  in  that  Teutonic  kindred  whose  char- 
acter is  valor;  the  tiling  he  will  quail  before  exists  not  on  this  earth  or 
under  it."  And  Heine  has  remarked,  "He  was  not  only  the  greatest, 
but  the  most  German  man  of  our  history.  In  his  character  all  the  faults 
and  all  the  virtues  of  the  Germans  are  combined  on  the  largest  scale. 
He  was  not  only  the  tongue,  but  the  sword  of  his  time." 

3.  The  princes  were:  John  the  Steadfast,  Elector  of  Saxony,  who  had 
succeeded  his  brother,  Frederic  the  Wise,  in  1525;  Prince  Wolfgang  of 
Anhalt;  the  Dukes  of  Grubenhagen,  Celle,  and  Mecklenburg;  two  Counts 
of  Mansfeld;  George,  Margrave  of  Brandenburg;  and  Philip,  Landgrave 
of  Hesse.  The  cities  were  Magdeburg,  Strasburg,  Nuremberg,  Ulm,  Con- 
stance, Reutlingen,  Windsheim,  Memmingen,  Lindau,  Kempen,  Heil- 
bronn,  Issny,  Weissenburg,  Nordlingen,  and  St.  Gallen. 

4.  Zwingli,  or  Zwingle,  had  received  a  liberal  education  at  Basle  and 
Vienna,  and  added  to  his  familiarity  with  Plato,  Aristotle,  and  Seneca 
a  profound  and  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  sacred  writers  in  their 
original  languages.  He  was  present,  as  chaplain,  with  a  body  of  Swiss 
mercenaries,  in  the  battle  of  Marignano;  but  afterwards  used  his  great 
influence  in  dissuading  his  countrymen  from  the  foreign  military  serv- 
ice which  marked  the  period  of  greatest  degradation  in  the  Swiss  re- 
publics. Becoming  preacher  to  the  famous  monastery  of  Einsiedeln  in 
1516,  Zwingle  found  himself  in  the  midst  of  the  grossest  superstitions 
of  his  age  and  country;  and  thenceforth  he  sought  to  substitute  Chris- 
tian intelligence  and  right  living  in  his  hearers  for  mere  observances. 
He  was  of  almost  exactly  the  same  age  as  Luther,  and  the  two  reform- 
ers began  about  the  same  time  to  preach  against  the  errors  and  abuses 
which  both  found  in  their  respective  fields  of  labor.  But  while  Luther 
was  willing  to  retain  all  rites  and  doctrines  which  were  not  expressly 
forbidden  in  the  Scriptures,  Zwingle  went  further,  and  wished  to  reject 
all  that  were  not  expressly  commanded  by  the  same  authority.  Called 
in  1518  to  be  preacher  in  the  Cathedral  at  Zurich,  Zwingle  produced 
much  excitement  by  the  bold  and  frank  spirit  of  his  teachings;  but 
the  great  Council  of  the  canton  sustained  him  against  all  opponents, 
and  often  sought  and  followed  his  advice  concerning  public  affairs.  The 
reformed  faith  was  declared  to  be  the  state-religion  of  Zurich,  Glarus, 
and  Bern,  while  the  Catholic  party  was  stronger  in  most  of  the  other 
cantons.  These  differences  led  to  open  war,  and  Zwingle  was  killed  in 
the  battle  of  Cappel,  15:^1. 

5.  William  Farel  was  born  at  Gap,  in  France,  1489,  studied  in  Paris, 
and  preached  the  reformed  doctrines  with  great  eloquence  and  success 
in  most  of  the  towns  of  Switzerland.  It  was  through  his  influence  that 
Protestantism  was  established  in  Geneva,  and  that  Calvin  was  induced 
to  take  up  his  abode  there.  When  both  reformers  were  banished  for  a 
time  from  Geneva,  Farel  removed  to  Neufchatel,  and  founded  a  church 
which  still  exists. 

6.  John  Calvin  was  a  native  of  Picardy,  in  northern  France.  Being 
destined  for  the  priesthood,  he  was  sent  to  the  University  of  Paris,  where 
he  became  intensely  engaged  in  a  study  of  the  Scriptures,  and  was  led 
to  a  belief  in  the  reformed  doctrines.  The  zeal  and  energy  of  his  preach- 
ing soon  drew  upon  him  the  displeasure  of  the  church,  and,  quitting  his 


NOTES,  279 


native  land,  he  t(K)k  refuge  In  BiuUe.  Here  he  pubUHhod  the  most  Im- 
poiiantof  all  his  w»)iUs,  the  '•  InstltuJoRof  the  Christian  Hellglon,"  which 

lie  drdlnitod  to  Kin«  Kraiiols  I.  VlsltiHK  Italy,  ho  was  kindly  received 
by  the  I)uehess  Kem'e.  of  Ferrara,  a  daughter  of  Klnn  Louis  XII.,  who, 
like  iier  eousin,  Mai-^aret  of  Navarre,  was  a  warm  friend  of  the  reform- 
ei-s.  Hut  even  her  inllueiiee  oould  not  secure  his  safi-ty,  and  he  with- 
drew to  Switzerland,  inieiuling  to  procee<l  into  (Jermany.  At  (Jeneva, 
however,  he  yielded  to  Farel's  urKent  entreaty,  and  was  electe<l  preacher 
and  teacher  of  theolo>«y  In  that  city.  During  the  reaction  which  ensue<l 
aKainst  the  severe  doctrine  and  discipline  01  the  reformers,  Calvin  with- 
drew to  Strasbury:,  ami  established  a  reformed  congreKatlon  which 
servtHl  as  a  nxMlel  to  all  the  Protestant  churches  in  France.  In  15^1,  ho 
complietl  with  the  pressing?  invitation  of  the  semite  of  Geneva,  and  re- 
turned to  the  city,  where  he  was  welcomed  with  great  Joy  and  afleetion. 
Tl»e  Z\  years  that  remained  of  his  life  were  spent  in  untiring  etlbrts  to 
establish  the  (Jenevese  church  and  state  on  firm  foundations  of  intel- 
ligence and  morality,  and  the  results  of  bis  labors  aro still  felt.  He  lived 
in  poverty,  steadily  refusing  to  receive  more  than  a  bare  supiMirt  from 
those  whom  he  was  serving.  It  should  be  remarked  that  what  we  now 
call  French  Switzerland,  had  then  no  connection  with  the  Swiss  Confed- 
eration, (ieneva  was  a  free  city,  having  thrown  ofl'  the  civil  jurisdiction 
of  her  bish<»p-counts,  together  with  their  spiritual  authority.  Valais  was 
a  part  of  the  Duchy  of  Savoy,  and  NeufchAtel  belonged  to  the  principality 
of  Orange,  on  the  Uhlne.    All  three  became  Swiss  states  In  1815. 

7.  This  princess,  sometimes  called  the  "  Pearl  of  Valols,"  was  dis- 
tinguished for  her  beauty,  genius,  and  liberal  culture.  She  was  first 
married  to  the  Duke  of  Alen^on,  but,  two  years  after  his  death,  in  1525, 
she  became  tlie  wife  of  Henry  d'Albret,  king  of  Navarre.  She  was 
tenderly  attached  to  her  brother,  Francis  I.,  and,  during  his  captivity 
in  Spain  (H52),  made  the  toilsome  journey  to  Madrid  to  comfort  him 
in  his  loneliness,  and  to  negotiate  a  treaty  with  the  emperor  for  his  re- 
lea.se. 

Queen  Margaret  constantly  used  her  influence  for  the  protection  of 
the  Reformers  and  their  adherents.  The  poet  Marot  was  attached  to 
her  court,  and  dedicated  to  her  his  popular  trench  version  of  the  Psalms. 
The  queen  herself  was  the  author  ot  many  works  in  prose  and  verse, 
of  which  the  best  known  is  a  collection  of  tales  called  the  "  Heptameron." 
Her  daughter,  Jeanne  d'  Albret,  married  Antony  of  Bourbon,  and  was 
the  mother  of  King  Henry  IV.,  of  France.    See  g?484,  611. 

8.  Solyman  was  an  enlightened  as  well  as  a  powerful  prince;  he 
adorned  his  cities  with  magnificent  buildings,  provided  for  the  instruc- 
tion of  youth,  and  encouraged  artists  and  learned  men.  Not  content 
with  ruling  all  the  dominions  of  the  eastern  Ca?sars,  he  aimed  to  make 
Constantinople  the  capital  of  the  world;  and  the  dissensions  in  Chris- 
t^'udom  gave  him  everv  prospect  of  adding  all  western  Europe  to  his 
realm.  While,  In  152(i,  the  roval  Council  of  Hungary  were  disputing 
about  the  means  of  resisting  him,  he  wa.s  marching  directly  upon  them 
with  3(X),000  men  and  .S<M)  well-mounted  cannon  or  the  latest  and  most 
efi'ective  design.  King  Louis  II.  awaited  him,  with  only  2<),0(X)  men,  on 
the  marshy  plain  of  Mohacz,  but  was  defeated  and  slain.  Solyman 
marched  on  toward  Buda,  marking  his  track  by  the  smoking  ruins  of 
towns  and  villages.  After  two  weeks'  residence  in  Buda,  he  withdrew, 
carrying  with  him  the  valuable  library  of  Matthias  Corvinus  (^429,  note), 
and  many  works  of  art,  to  enrich  Constantinople. 

Three  years  later,  having  conquered  Bosnia,  Croatia,  Dalmatia,  and 
Slavonia,  Solyman  advanced  again  and  laid  siege  to  \ienna;  but  the 
German  princes  now  forgot  their  dissensions  for  a  time,  and  Joined  In 
so  spirited  a  defense  that  he  was  compelled  to  retreat. 

Solyman  long  outlived  his  great  ally  and  opponents  in  the  West  (see 
ggStiO,  561),  and  the  wave  of  Turkish  conquests  having  reached  Its  height 
In  him,  has  ever  since  been  declining. 


CHAPTER  III. 

THE  HOUSE  OF  ORLEANS  IN  FRANCE. 

HE   last  six  kings  of  the  House  of 

Valois  (see  Table,  p.  214,  and  §405) 

belonged  to  the  Orleans  branch. 

The  wars  of  Louis  XH.  in  Italy  have 

been  mentioned  (§445).      At  home  he 

proved  himself  a  wise  and  good  king, 

by  lightening  the  burdens  and  studying 

the  welfare   of  his   people.      The   hard 

lessons  of  his  early  life  had   not   been 

lost   upon   him.     He   had  been  treated 

with    injustice   by  the    court,  especially 

by    the    Lady    of    Beaujeu,    a    worthy 

daughter  of  Louis  XI.,  who  had  been 

regent    during    her    brother's    minority; 

but  when  the   early  and   sudden   death 

.  ,  of  Charles  VIII.   raised   him   unexpect- 

A  Leaguer.  _  ^ 

edly  to  the  throne,  the  courtiers  began 
to  fear  that  they  had  damaged  their  own  prospects.  Louis 
quieted  their  uneasiness  by  the  generous  remark  that  "it 
would  ill  become  a  king  of  France  to  remember  the 
quarrels  of  a  duke  of  Orleans." 

474.  The  character  of  Francis  I.  (A.  D.  15 15 -1547) 
has  been  shown  in  his  dealings  with  Charles  V.  and  Henry 
VIIL,  and  with  his  Vaudois  subjects  (§468).  He  Httle 
cared  though  his  people  were  starving  at  home,  so  long  as 
his  hunger  for  "glory"  could  be  fed  by  conquests  .  in 
Italy;  and  though  he  talked  much  of  the  "honor  of  a 
(280) 


REIGN  OF  HENRY  If.  281 

king»"  he  broke  his  word  without  uneasiness.  His  inter- 
course with  Italy,  however,  brouglu  some  increase  of 
refinement  to  France;  and  he  claimed  the  proud  title  of 
"Restorer  of  Letters  and  the  Arts."  (see  §452). 

475.  During  the  reign  of  his  son,  Henry  H.  (A.  I). 
1547-1559),  the  Guises,*  an  ambitious  and  powerful  family 
descended  from  the  dukes  of  Lorraine,  gained  great  as- 
cendency at  the  French  court.  Mary  of  Guise  became 
the  wife  of  James  V.  of  Scotland,  and  her  daughter,  the 
young  Queen  Mary  (§498),  was  married  to  the  dauphin, 
afterwards  Francis  IL  During  the  regency  of  the  elder 
queen,  the  Guises  ruled  the  Scottish  court,  where  they 
strongly  opposed  the  English  and  Protestant  influence. 

476.  Henry  H.  married  Catherine  de'  Medici,  2  a  niece 
of  Pope  Clement  VIL  Though  he  persecuted  his  own 
heretical  subjects,  Henry  allied  himself  with  the  Protestants 
of  Germany,  that  he  might  seize  Metz,  Toul,  and  Verdun, 
free  imperial  cities,  which  until  very  lately  (1870)  were 
still  held  by  France.  The  Duke  of  Guise  distinguished 
himself  by  defending  Metz  against  the  Emperor  Charles  V., 
who,  with  a  grand  army  of  100,000  men,  vainly  tried  to 
recapture  it. 

477.  In  war   with  Philip  H.,   the   French    forces  suffered 
a  severe  defeat  at  St.  Quentin;  but  Guise  partly 
consoled   the   king  by    the    capture  of   Calais,  ^ 

which,  for  more  than  200  years,  had  been  held  by  the 
English  (§388).  The  treaty  of  Cateau  Cambre'sis,  two  years 
later,  closed  this  war  with  Philip.  France  agreed  to  resign 
all  her  claims  in  Italy,  but  retained  Savoy.  Calais  was  to 
be  restored  to  England  after  eight  years,  or  put  to  ransom 
for  1,500,000'  crowns,  to  be  paid  by  the  French.  But 
Calais  was  never  restored,  nor  was  the  ransom  ever  paid. 
During  the  festivities  following  the  treaty,  Henry  II.  was 
accidentally  killed  by  the  lance  of  one  of  his  courtiers, 
whom  he  had  challenged  to  a  tilt. 


282  MODERN  HISTORY. 

478.  The  Reformed  Church  of  France,  deriving  its  doc- 
.trines    from    Calvin,  was    first   organized    in    the    reign    of 

Henry  11.  The  French  Protestants  were  now  first  called 
Huguenots.  During  the  successive  reigns  of  Henry's  three 
sons,  their  mother,  Catherine  de'  Medici,  tried  to  rule 
France  by  playing  off  the  Catholic  party,  led  by  the  Guises, 
against  the  Huguenots  who  had  the  great  Bourbon'*  family, 
including  the  princes  of  Conde  and  the  young  king  of 
Navarre,^  at  their  head. 

479.  Francis  H.^  reigned  less  than  a  year  and  a  half, 
and  was  succeeded,  in  1560,  by  his  brother,  Charles  IX., 
then  only  ten  years  old.  The  religious  wars  broke  out 
with  an  attack  of  the  duke  of  Guise  and  his  armed  retainers 
upon  a  congregation  of  Huguenots,  who  were  met  for 
worship  in  a  barn.  Frightful  scenes  of  violence  soon 
occurred  in  all  parts  of  France.  The  pope  and  the  king 
of  Spain  sent  aid  to  the  Catholics,  while  Elizabeth  of  En- 
gland furnished  men  and  money  to  the  Huguenots. 

480.  The  queen-mother,  who  cared  only  too  little  for 
any  religion,  but  who  wanted  to  marry  her  favorite  son 
Henry  to  the  queen  of  England,  at  length  procured  a 
treaty  of  peace,  by  which  the  Huguenots  were  guaranteed 
freedom  of  worship,  and  restoration  to  all  their  rights. 
The  good  Admiral  Coligny,'' one  of  their  leaders,  was  in- 
vited to  court,  and  was  treated  with  the  greatest  affection 
by  Charles. 

481.  Two  years  later,  the  Princess  Margaret  was  married 
to  the  young  king  Henry  of  Navarre,  now  the  chief  of  the 
Huguenots,  and  all  good  men  rejoiced  in  this  token  of  a 
settled  peace.     It  is  hard  to  tell  when  the  friendly  policy 

was  abandoned,  but  within  six  'days  after  the 

ug.  24,  1572.       -yv^edding,  before  daylight  of  St.  Bartholomew's 

Day,    a   signal   was   given    from    the    palace    for   a   general 

massacre    of    the    Huguenots!      Instantly,    as    if   a   myriad 

of   wild    beasts    had    been    let    loose,    the    streets    of   Paris 


MASSACJ^E  OF  ST,  BARTHOLOMEW.  283 

resounded  with  the  yells  of  murderers  and  the  despairing 
(ties  of  their  victims.  Eight  days  and  nights  these  horrid 
scenes  went  on  in  Paris,  and  they  were  repeated  in  all  the 
cities  of  France. 

482.  King  Charles  had  opposed  his  mother's  plan,  first 
suggested  to  her  by  the  Duke  of  (iuise.  She  took  as  an 
order  from  him  his  frantic  exclamation;  ''Well,  then,  kill 
tlicin  all,  that  not  one  may  live  to  reproach  me!"  Soon, 
however,  his  better  soul  awoke,  and  conscience  never 
afterwards  allowed  him  to  rest.  His  sleep  was  broken  by 
the  cries  of  his  victims,  or  by  visions  of  their  blood-stained 
faces,  and  the  only  approach  to  comfort  he  enjoyed  was 
in  listening  to  the  hymns  of  his  old  Huguenot  nurse.  He 
died  within  two  years  of  the  massacre,  in  the  24th  year 
of  his  age,  A.  D.  1574. 

483.  His  brother,  Henry  HI.,  was  a  shallow  youth,  who 
L^Mve  more  attention  to  his  monkeys,  parrots,  and  fantastic 
dress,  than  to  the  parties  that  were  tearing  France  to  pieces. 
Tlie  great  feudal  chiefs — even  commandants  of  single  towns 

ind  fortresses  —  set  up  independent  governments  in  con- 
tempt of  the  royal  power.  The  king's  only  surviving 
brother  joined  the  Huguenot  party  in  order  to  secure  some 
new  provinces  for  himself,  and  obtained  for  them  a  more 
favorable  treaty  than  they  had  ever  before  enjoyed. 

484.  The  Guises  and  most  of  the  Catholic  nobles  now 
joined  themselves  in  a  league  for  the  extirpation  of  the 
Huguenots.  They  accepted  the  protection  of  the  king  of 
Spain,  and  secretly  planned  the  dethronement  of  Henry 
HI.  Henry  yielded  all  that  they  asked.  He  declared 
himself  the  head  of  the  league,  hoping  thus  to  disarm  its 
treasonable  designs;  and  he  revoked  all  grants  of  freedom 
of  conscience.  His  weak  policy  did  not  succeed;  his 
nominal  leadership  only  lasted  three  months,  and  the  duke 
of  Guise,  a  man  of  immense  force  of  character,  was  always 
the  true  leader.     The  death  of  the  king's  brother  made  the 


284  MODERN  HISTORY. 

leaguers  yet  more  zealous,  for  Henry  of  Navarre,  the  head 
of  the  Huguenot  party,  was  the  next  heir  to  the  throne. 
The  Duke  of  Guise  seized  Paris,  and  set  up  a  revolutionary 
government,  which  continued  six  years  in  force. 

485.  Unable  to  meet  this  powerful  subject  in  a  fair  field, 
Henry  invited  Guise  to  a  conference,  and  caused  him  to  be 
murdered  in  his  very  presence,  A.  D.  1588.  This  base  deed 
was  soon  requited;  for  a  Dominican  monk,  named  Clement, 
obtained  an  audience,  and  stabbed  the  king  to  the  heart. 
Henry  HI.  was  last  of  the  descendants  of  Philip  of  Valois, 
who  had  ruled  France  260  years.  The  queen-mother, 
Catherine  de'  Medici,  died  a  few  days  after  the  murder  of 
Guise. 

Point  out,  on  Maps  7  and  13,  the  duchy  of  Lorraine.  The  cities 
of  Metz,  Toul,  Verdun,  Paris,  Calais. 

Read  Histories  of  France  already  mentioned,  and  Pressensd's  His- 
tory of  Protestantism  in  France. 


TABLE  — HOUSE  OF  VALOIS. 


Philip  VI. 
John. 

Charles  V. 

1 

^ 

Chakles  VI. 

Louis,  Duke  of  Orleans. 

1 

Charles  VII. 
Louis  XI. 
Charles  VIII. 

1 
Charles,  Duke  of  Orleans. 

Louis  XII. 

John,  Count  of  Angouleme. 
Charles,  Count  of  Angouleme. 

Francis  I. 

.  1 

Henry  II.  m.  Catherine  de" 
1 

'Medici. 

Francis  II. 

Charles  IX. 

Henry  III. 

NOTES.  285 


NOTES. 

1.  Lorraine  was  then  a  (Jormnn  diicliy,  and  the  Gaises  wero  rcRnrdetl 
as  foroiKiuM-s  hv  the  French.  Tlu>  first  Duke  of  Uuiso  was  u  younnor  mm 
of  Duke  K»'iu'  llMof  Ix)rraino,  and  rort-lved  his  tlth«  from  kinj?  Krancis 
I.,  wliom  ho  served  with  distinction  in  tlie  haltle  of  Marignano  and 
I'lsewhere  (s  \W). 

It  was  his  son,  the  second  Duke  of  (lUlse.who  defended  Metz  in  1558, 
Mild  captured  Cahils  in  l.>)7.  iMary  of  Uuise,  tiueen  Regent  of  .Scothind, 
wjis  daiif?htor  of  the  first  and  sister  of  the  second  Duke. 

2.  Catherine  was  daugliter  of  I/>renzo  II.— grandson  of  r^)renzo  the 
Mauuiticent  (ijji  ;i70,  42S»,  and  note),  and  was  born  at  Florence  in  loli*. 
Married  in  I'lii,  slie  had  a  comparatively  quiet  and  unolHrusive  nart  in 
public  affairs,  as  Daupliiness  and  afterwards  as  Queen-consort,  tin«iing 
her  satisfaction  in  tlie  gract^  and  l)rilliancy  of  lier  court.  Her  real  am- 
bition becanu'  appiiront  during  the  successive  reigns  of  her  three  sons. 
As  n>g(Mit  for  Charles  IX.,  and  later,  by  artfully  l)alanclng  the  several 
parties,  she  held,  for  many  years,  the  chief  power  in  France,  and  useti 
it  for  purdv  selfish  ends,  without  regard  to  justice  or  mercy.  Shakes- 
l>care  is  said  to  have  depicted  her  character,  jus  well  a.s  the  similar  traits 
of  Jezcl^el  and  Herodias,  in  his  Lady  Macbeth. 

The  only  good  trait,  if  we  may  call  it  such,  which  this  singular  woman 
l>ossessed,  was  the  love  of  tlie  fine  arts,  which  she  shared  with  all  lier 
family. 

3.  •*  For  the  last  ten  years  the  French  had  kept  their  eyes  on  Calais. 
The  occupation  of  a  French  fortress  by  a  foreign  power  was  a  perpetual 
insult  to  the  national  pride,  while  it  gave  England  inconvenient  au- 
tliority  in  the  narrow  seas.  The  defenses  ha<l  been  repaired  by  Henry 
VIII.;  but.  In  the  wasteful  times  of  Edward,  the  work  had  fallen  again 
into  ruin,  and  Mary,  straitened  by  debt,  [and]  a  diminishetl  revenue, 
hjui  found  neither  means  nor  leisure  to  attend  to  them.  .  .  .  Ix>ra 
Wentworth  was  left  at  Calais  with  not  more  than  ."lOO  men.  A  procla- 
mation had  forbidden  the  export  of  corn  from  England,  and,  by  the 
middle  of  the  winter,  there  was  an  actual  scarcity  of  food. 

"On  the  ()th  of  January,  after  a  furious  cannonade.  Guise  stormed  the 
town.  The  English  attempted  to  blow  it  up  when  they  could  not  sjvve 
it,  but  their  powder-tmin  had  been  washed  with  water,  and  they  failed. 
Wentworth,  feeling  that  further  resistance  would  lead  to  useless  slaughter, 
doinandcd  a  parley,  and,  after  a  short  discussion,  accepted  the  terms 
of  surrender  oftered  by  Guise.  The  garrison  and  the  inhabitants  of  Ca- 
lais, amounting  in  all,  men,  women,  and  children,  to  5,000  souls,  were 
permitted  to  retire  to  England  with  their  lives,  and  nothing  more.  The 
spoil  was  enormous,  and  the  plunder  of  St.  Quentin  was  not  unjustly 
revenged ;  jewels,  plate,  and  money  were  deposited  on  the  altars  of  the 
churches,  and  the  inhabitants,  carrying  with  them  the  clothes  which 
they  wore,  were  sent  as  homeless  beggars  in  the  ensuing  week  across 
the  Channel.  Then  only,  when  it  was  too  late,  the  Queen  roused  her- 
self. As  soon  as  Calais  had  definitely  fallen,  all  the  English  wiunties 
were  called  on  by  proclamation  to  contribute  their  musters.  But  the 
opportuiiitj'^  which  had  been  long  offered,  and  long  neglected,  was  now 
altogether  gone;  the  ships  were  ready,  troops  came,  and  arms  came,  but 
change  of  weather  came  also,  and  westerly  gales  and  storms.  .  .  .  The 
fragments  of  the  wrecked  fleet  were  strewn  on  Dover  beach,  or  swal- 
lowe<l  In  the  quicksands  of  the  Goodwin. 

"The  last  remnant  of  the  continental  dominions  of  the  Plantagenets 
was  gone.  Measured  by  substantial  value,  the  loss  of  Calais  was  a  gain. 
Englisii  princes  were  never  again  to  lay  claim  to  the  crown  of  France, 
and  the  possession  of  a  fortress  on  French  soil  was  a  perpetual  irrita- 
tion. But  Calais  was  called  the  'brightest  jewel  in  the  English  crown.* 
A  jewel  it  Wivs,  useless,  costly,  but  dearly  prized."— Abridged  frttm  Fronde's 
History  0/  Em/land,  Ch.  XXXIV. 

4.  The  Bourbons  date  from  Robert,  Count  of  Clermont,  a  younger  son 
of  King  Ix>uis  IX.  His  son  Louis  served  Charles  IV.  so  well,  in  his  wars 
with  the  P2nglish,  that  he  received  the  ducal  title,  and  became  the  first 
Duke  of  Bourbon.    One  of  the  most  powerful  members  of  the  fiamiiy 


286  MODERN  HISTORY. 


was  that  Duke  and  Constable  of  Bourbon  (§  451),  who  deserted  the  cause 
of  Francis  I.,  and  fell  in  the  attack  on  Rome  in  1527  (§461).  "Consta- 
ble" was  the  title  of  the  highest  military  officer  in  France. 

The  princes  of  Cond6  took  their  title  from  the  town  of  Cond(?,  in 
Hainault,  which,  with  other  towns,  was  added  to  the  possessions  of  the 
family,  in  1487,  by  the  marriage  of  Mary  of  Luxembourg,  a  great  Neth- 
erland  heiress,  with  the  head  of  the  House  of  Bourbon.  "The  Great 
Cond6,"  mentioned  in  g§618,  619,  was  the  sixth  of  her  descendants.  The 
Bourbons  occupied  the  throne  of  France  (see  next  note)  from  1589  to 
tlie  Revolution,  and,  after  the  fall  of  Napoleon,  from  1815  to  1848,  if  we 
Include  Louis  Philippe,  who  belonged  to  the  younger  Orl6ans  branch 
of  the  family. 

5.  Navarre  was  a  little  kingdom  on  the  confines  of  France  and  Spain, 
and  often  a  subject  of  dispute  between  the  sovereigns  ot  those  countries. 
Its  independence  dated  from  887,  but  in  1512,  Ferdinand  the  Catholic 
wrested  the  part  of  it  which  lay  south  of  the  Pyrenees  from  Jean 
d'Albret,  and  governed  it  thenceforth  by  viceroys  of  his  own  family, 
until  it  was  absorbed  as  a  mere  province  of  Spain.  The  northern  or 
French  portion  continued  to  give  a  title,  and  little  else,  to  several  mem- 
bers of  the  family  of  Albret,  until  it  passed,  by  the  marriage  of  Jeanne, 
sole  heiress  of  that  family,  to  the  head  of  the  House  of  Bourbon.  Her 
son.  King  Henry  of  Navarre,  became  Henry  IV.  of  France,  1589.  Queen 
Jeanne  herself  died  at  Paris,  shortly  before  the  marriage  of  her  sou 
with  the  Princess  Margaret. 

6.  Francis  II.,  the  eldest  son  of  Henry  II.  and  Catherine  de'  Medici, 
was  in  his  seventeenth  year  when  he  came  to  the  throne,  and  was  little 
more  than  a  puppet  in  the  hands  of  his  wife's  two  uncles,  the  Duke  of 
Guise  and  the  Cardinal  of  Lorraine  (§475).  The  King  of  Navarre,  the 
Prince  of  Cond6  and  other  great  nobles,  incensed  by  seeing  France  thus 
ruled  by  foreign  adventurers,  formed  a  national  party  in  alliance  with 
the  Protestants,  and  tried  by  the  "Conspiracy  of  Amboise"  to  get  the 
young  king  into  their  own  power.  The  conspiracy,  which  took  its  name 
from  the  royal  castle  of  Amboise,  was  discovered  and  defeated.  The 
Prince  of  Cond6  was  condemned  to  lose  his  head ;  but  the  death  of  the 
king  prevented  the  execution  of  the  sentence.   Dec.  5,  1560. 

7.  Gaspard  de  Coligny  (ko-leen-ye)  was  one  of  the  most  liberal  men 
of  his  time.  Henry  W.  made  him  Admiral  of  France  in  1552,  and  he 
soon  conceived  the  idea  of  founding,  in  the  newly  discovered  countries 
beyond  tlie  Atlantic,  a  great  French  empire  which  should  at  once  in- 
crease the  glory  of  France  and  afford  a  refuge  to  those  of  her  children 
who  were  now  persecuted  for  their  faith.  In  1555,  two  vessels,  laden 
with  French  emigrants,  sailed  for  the  coast  of  Brazil.  But  the  comman- 
dant, Villegagnon,  was  either  faithless  or  incompetent,  and  the  Portu- 
guese soon  drove  out  the  intruders  upon  land  which  they  claimed  (§  486). 
Coligny's  two  attempts  to  plant  colonies  within  the  present  limits  of 
the  United  States,  were  equally  unsuccessful,  the  only  permanent  result 
being  the  name  Carolina,  which  was  given  to  both  settlements  in  honor 
of  Charles  IX. 

Coligny  defended  St.  Quentin  for  the  king,  and  remained  a  i)risoner 
after  the  capture  of  the  place.  Having  embraced  the  reformed  religion 
about  1560,  he  acted  as  second  in  command  to  the  Prince  of  Cond6  in 
the  wars  against  Catherine  de'  Medici  and  the  Guises.  The  young  King, 
Charles,  seems  to  have  felt  a  real  confidence  and  respect  for  the  Ad- 
miral. Four  days  after  the  wedding  of  the  Princess  Margaret  with 
Henry  of  Navarre,  Coligny  was  shot  in  the  street,  though  not  fatally, 
by  a  follower  of  the  Duke  of  Guise.  The  Queen-mother  and  the  King 
visited  the  wounded  man  in  his  bed-chamber,  and  expressed  indigna- 
tion at  the  crinne,  which  they  px'omised  to  punish.  But,  on  the  night 
of  the  general  massacre.  Guise,  with  his  armed  retainers,  came  to  Colig- 
ny's house;  a  servant,  named  Le  Besmre,  ascended  to  the  Admiral's  room 
and  stabbed  him  several  times  as  he  lay  in  bed.  "  Young  man,"  said  the 
victim,  "you  ought  to  respect  my  gray  hairs;  but,  do  what  you  will, 
you  can  only  shorten  my  life  by  a  few  days."  He  was  quickly  killed, 
and  his  body  was  thrown  out  of  the  window  into  the  court  below, 
where  It  fell  at  the  feet  of  the  Duke. 


CIIAr'lT'K    IV 


rilK     lllxtkN    I.N     KNCIANP. 


Costume  of  XVI. 
Century. 


\'  marrying  a  daughter  of  Edward  IV., 
Henry  VII.  (A.  I).  1485 -1509)  united 
the  rival  houses  of  York  and  Lancaster, 
and  ended  the  Wars  of  the  Roses 
(§§  39^ ~ 399)-  ^^^  Yorkists,  however, 
put  forward  two  claimants* to  the  crown, 
one  i)retending  to  be  the  Earl  of  War- 
wick, nephew  of  Edward  IV.  and  grand- 
son of  the  '*  King-maker,"  the  other 
personating  young  Richard  of  York, 
who  had  been  smothered  in  the  Tower 
(§  398 )•  ^oth  rebellions  were  easily 
put  down ;  but  the  king's  narrow,  grasp- 
ing disposition  did  not  win  the  love  of 
his  people. 

487.  The  middle  class  made  great  advances,  however, 
during  this  reign.  Poor  nobles  were  permitted  to  sell 
their  estates,  which  were  bought,  in  many  cases,  by  thrifty 
citizens.  The  number  of  retainers  in  noblemen's  house- 
holds was  also  limited  by  law,  and  thus  a  great  many 
idlers  were  driven  to  honest  work.  Englishmen  had  their 
full  share  in  exploring  the  bays  and  coasts  of  the  New 
World  —  a  welcome  field  of  adventure  for  many  bold  and 
restless  spirits,  who,  like  their  ancestors  (§§328-329), 
delighted  in  the  perils  of  the  sea. 

488.  Henry  VHI.  (A.  D.  1509-1547)  succeeded,  at  the 
age  of  eighteen,  to  a  clear  tide  and  a  full  treasury.  He 
was  the  first  king  since   Richard   II.   (§390)  whose  claim 


288  MODERN  HISTORY. 

to  the  crown  had  been  undisputed,  and  his  popularity  was 
unbounded.  For  the  first  twenty  years  of  his  reign,  no 
one  doubted  his  sincere  desire  to  rule  justly.  He  mar- 
ried Catherine  of  Spain  (§  444);  his  eldest  sister  was 
already  wife  of  the  king  of  Scotland,  (see  Table,  p.  295). 

489.  Henry's  ambition  soon  led  him  into  wars  on  the 
continent.  Hoping  to  regain  the  almost  forgotten  posses- 
sions of  his  ancestors  (g§  350,  381)  he  invaded  France,  and 
gained  the  "Battle  of  the  Spurs,"  so  called  from  the  sud- 
den flight  of  the  enemy.  Meanwhile  James  IV.  of  Scot- 
land  marched    into    England,    but   he  was    de- 

■  ^^^^'  feated  and  slain  with  10,000  of  his  followers  at 
Flodden  Field.  Henry  hastened  to  make  peace  with  his 
sister,  who  was  regent  for  her  infant  son,  James  V.  Peace 
with  France  was  soon  afterward  sealed  by  the  marriage 
of  his  younger  sister  with  Louis  XH. 

490.  Henry's  chief  minister  was  Thomas  Worsey,^who, 
by  his  own  remarkable  talents  and  the  king's  favor,  was 
raised  from  a  humble  position  to  great  power.  He  was 
archbishop  of  York,  cardinal,  and  chancellor  of  the  king- 
dom; his  palaces  almost  equaled  the  king's  in  magnificence 
and  crowds  of  attendants.  The  emperor  Charles  flattered 
Wolsey,  as  the  surest  way  to  win  the  favor  of  Henry 
(§  450).  He  gave  him  the  revenues  of  two  Spanish  bishop- 
rics, and  promised  his  influence  to  make  him  pope.  Two 
elections  passed  (§§451,  460)  without  the  fulfillment  of  this 
promise,  and  Wolsey  became  the  chief  opponent  of  Queen 
Catherine  and  the  Spanish  party  in  England. 

491.  Of  all  the  children  of  Henry  and  Catherine,  only 
the  sickly  princess  Mary  survived  infancy.  Henry  saw  in 
the  death  of  his  sons  a  sure  proof  of  the  wrath  of  heaven 
for  his  marriage  with  his  brother's  widow,  which  was  con- 
trary to  the  rules  of  the  church.  Wolsey,  as  priest  and 
counselor,  encouraged  the  thought.  His  importance  would 
have  been  increased  by  arranging   a   new  marriage  with  a 


MAP  No.  X. 

CHIEF   ENGLISH    WRITERS 

OF  THE  TUDOR  AND  EARLY  STUART  PERIODb. 


Prose   Writers, 

Sir  Thomas  More,  A.  U.  1480-1535  :  **  Utopia,"  etc. 

VVm.  Tyndale,  1485-1536:  Translation  of  New  Testament 

Roger  Ascham,  1515-1568:  "Toxophilus;"  **  The  School- 
master." 

Richard  Hooker,  1554-1600:   ''Ecclesiastical  Polity." 

Sir  Philip  Sidney,  1554-1586:  "Arcadia;"  "Defense  of 
Poesie." 

Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  1552-1618  :  "  History  of  the  World,"  etc. 

William  Camden,  1551-1623:  "Br'tannia,"  etc. 

Richard  Hakluyt,  1553-1616:  "  Voyages, "  etc. 

Francis  Bacon,  1561-1626:  "Essays;"  "  Advancement  of 
Learning,"  etc. 

Robert  Burton,  1576-1639:  "Anatomy  of  Melancholy,"  etc. 

Izaak  Walton,  1593-1683:  "The  Complete  Angler,"  etc. 

Poets  and  Dramatists. 
Henry  Howard,  Earl  of  Surrey,  1516-1547  :  Poems. 
Edmund  Spenser,  1553-1599:  *'The  Shepherd's  Calendar;'* 

"The  Faerie  Queene,"  etc. 
Thos.  Sackville,"  Lord  Buckhurst,   1536-1608:    "Mirror  of 

Magistrates,"  etc. 
Samuel  Daniel,  1562-1619:   "  Musophilus,"  etc. 
Christopher  Marlowe,  1 565-1 593:  "Doctor  Faustus,"  etc. 
William  Shakespeare,  1564-1616:  Plays,  Poems,  and  Sonnets. 
Ben  Jonson,  1574-L637  :  Comedies,  Masques,  etc. 
Beaumont,  1585-1616,  and  Fletcher,  1576-1625:  Plays. 
Philip  Massinger,  1584-1640:  Comedies,  etc. 
Robert  Herrick,  1591-1674:  Lyric  Poems. 
Francis  Quarles,  1592-1644:  Poems. 
George  Herbert,  1593-1632:   "The  Temple,"  etc. 
Sir  John  Suckling,  1609-16*43  :  "  Ballad  on  a  Wedding,"  etc. 


STEPS   IN   EUROPEAN   DISCOVERIES. 


Canary  Islands  discovered  by  Spaniards  about  A.  D.  1360 
Western  coast  of  Africa  explored  by  Portuguese  about  141 5 
Madeira  discovered  and  settled  by  Portuguese  about  1420 
Cape  of  Good  Hope  passed  by  Diaz  1487 

San  Salvador,  Hayti,  and  Cuba  disc,  by  Columbus  1492 
North  American  Continent  discovered  by  Cabot  1497 

South  American  Continent  discovered  by  Columbus  1498 
Sea-route  to  India  established  by  Vasco  de  Gama  1497-1499 
Brazil  discovered  by  Cabral  1500 

Florida  and  the  Gulf  Stream,  by  Ponce  de  Leon  15 12 
Pacific  Ocean  at  Darien,  by  Nunez  de  Balboa  15 13 

Mexico  disc,   and  conquered  by  Spaniards  151 7- 15  21 

Philippine   Islands  discovered,  and  the  world  ) 
circumnavigated  by  Magellan's  fleet       ) 
Harbors  of  N.  Y.  and  Newport  disc,  by  Verrazzano     1524 
River  St.  Lawrence  visited  by  Cartier  i534>    ^535 

Peru  conquered  by  Spaniards  1 531-1536 

Pacific  coast  of  N.  America  explored  by  Spaniards  1540-42 
Mississippi  River  discovered  by  Ferdinand  de  Soto  1541 
Richard  Chancellor  discovers  site  of  Archangel  1553 

Martin  Frobisher  explores  the  northern  seas  1576-1578 
Davis  Strait  discovered  by  John  Davis  1 585-1 587 

Australia  discovered  by  Dutch  navigators  1605 

Baffin   Bay    explored    by  William  Baffin  16 16 

New  Zealand  discovered  by  Tasman  1642 

Mississippi  River  explored  by  La  Salle  1682 

Sandwich  Islands  re-discovered  by  Captain  Cook  1778 
Africa  crossed  from  east  to  west  by  Livingstone  1850 

Congo  River  explored  by  Stanley  1876 


REFORMATION  IN  ENGLAND,  289 

French  princess,  and  so  he  pushed  the  application  for  the 
king's  divorce. 

492.  Pope  Clement  (J^  461)  had  a  hard  (piestion  to  de- 
cide. The  Reformation  had  so  affected  all  the  countries 
in  Europe,  that  if  he  offended  the  emperor — Catherine's 
nephew  —  (lermany  and  the  Netherlands  would  certainly 
become  Protestant;  while,  if  he  refused  the  divorce,  both 
England  and  France  were  almost  equally  sure  to  separate 
from  the  Roman  Churcli.  He  tried  to  gain  time  by  par- 
leys. Wolsey,  finding  that  the  king  chose  to  marry  Anne 
Boleyn,  a  maid  of  honor  to  Queen  Caihciinc,  instead  of 
the  French  princess,  lost  his  zeal  for  the  divorce. 

493.  This  occasioned  his  fall.  He  was  ordered  to  retire 
to  his  archbishopric  of  York;  but  the  next  year  he  was 
arrested  on  a  charge  of  high  treason,  and  died  on  his  way 
to  London.  On  his  death-bed  he  uttered  these  memorable 
words:  ''Had  I  but  served  my  God  as  diligently  as  I  have 
served  the  king,  He  would  not  have  given  me  over  in 
my  gray  hairs."  Cran'mer,  an  obscure  priest,  now  advised 
the  king  to  lay  the  question  of  his  divorce  before  all  the 
universities     in    Europe.      Their     opinion    was 

^  .       ,  ,  A.   D.  1533. 

agamst    it;    but    Cranmer    was    raised    to    the 

primacy    of    England,    and    held    a    court    in    which    he 

pronounced    the    marriage    annulled. 

494.  Parliament  confirmed  the  decision,  and  recognized 
Anne  Boleyn  as  the  lawful  wife  of  their  king.  They  had 
previously  declared  Henry  to  be  the  head  of  the  English 
Church,  and  annulled  the  pope's  claim  to  tribute  and  obe- 
dience. A  subsequent  parliament  suppressed  all  the  abbeys 
and  convents  in  England.  Part  of  their  revenues  were 
applied  to  schools,  colleges,  and  six  new  bishoprics,  but  a 
large  part  went  to  enrich  the  courtiers;  and  Charles  V., 
referring  to  the  immense  loans  which  former  kings  had 
drawn    from    the    abbeys,    laughingly    remarked    that    his 

Hist.  —  10. 


29©  MODERN  HISTORY. 

"brother  of  England  had  killed   the  goose   that   laid   the 
.golden  egg." 

495.  Though  he  had  thus  separated  from  the  pope, 
Henry  hated  the  Reformation,  He  had  distinguished  him- 
self,  in  his  early  years,  by  writing  a  book  against  Luther, 
which  gained  for  him  the  title,  "Defender  of  the  Faith." 
His  wrath  was  pretty  equally  divided  between  the  Catho- 
lics, who  denied  his  supremacy,  and  the  Protestants,  who 
disbelieved  his  doctrines.  Among  the  former,  who  died 
for  conscience'  sake,  were  Sir  Thomas  More,  the  brightest 
genius  and  most  virtuous  and  amiable  man  of  the  time ; 
Fisher,  the  good  bishop  of  Rochester,  and  the  monks  of 
the  Charterhouse  in  London,  a  brotherhood  whom  scandal 
never  accused  of  any  other  crime  than  faithfulness  to  their 
convictions. 

496.  Three  years  from  her  coronation,  Queen  Anne  was 
beheaded  on  frivolous  charges,  and  her  late  attendant,  Jane 
Sey'mour,  became  queen.  The  next  year,  the  whole  nation 
rejoiced  in  the  birth  of  a  prince,  who  was  afterward  King 
Edward  VL  Queen  Jane  died  peaceably;  and  the  king's 
next  marriage  was  with  Anne  of  Cleves,^  a  German  prin- 
cess. She  failed  to  please  him,  and  the  marriage  was 
annulled.  The  misconduct  of  Catherine  Howard,^  his  fifth 
wife,  compelled  the  king  to  sign  her  death-warrant,  and 
she  was  beheaded  on  Tower  Hill.  His  sixth  and  last  wife, 
Catherine  Parr,^  nearly  lost  her  head  in  consequence  of  a 
theological  discussion,  but  her  ready  wit  saved  her  life. 

497.  In  his  last  'years  Henry  became  an  intolerable 
tyrant,  and  the  lives  of  some  of  his  most  noble  and 
blameless  subjects  were  sacrificed  to  his  suspicion.  He 
died  in  1547,  the  same  year  with  Francis  I.  of  France. 
His  son,  Edward  VL  (A.  D.  1547 -1553),  was  only  nine 
years  old,  and  the  duke  of  Somerset  was  made  Protector. 
He  was  a  warm  friend  of  the  Reformation.  A  commission 
appointed  by  him,  with  Archbishop   Cranmer  at  its  head, 


LADY  JANE   GREY,  291 

gave   to   the    English   Church   the   forms  of  doctrine  and 
worship  which  it  still  retains. 

498.  James  V.  of  Scotland  (§  489)  had  died  in  1542, 
leaving  only  an  infant  daughter,  the  afterwards  celebrated 
Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  to  inherit  his  crown.  A  leading 
policy  of  Henry  VIII.,  and  of  Somerset  after  him,  was  to 
marry  the  young  Edward  to  this  baby  queen,  and  thus 
peaceably  unite  the  two  kingdoms.  The  Protestant  nobles 
of  Scotland  fLivored  this  alliance,  but  their  opponents  hur- 
ried the  little  queen  over  to  France  and  betrothed  her  to 
the  dauphin. 

499.  Somerset's  talents  were  not  equal  to  the  great 
changes  he  tried  to  effect.  He  was  at  length  deprived  of 
all  his  offices,  condemned  for  treason,  and  beheaded.  His 
power  passed  into  the  hands  of  his  rival,  the  duke  of 
Northumberland.^  This  unscrupulous  plotter  persuaded  the 
young  king  to  set  aside  his  two  sisters,  Mary  and  Eliza- 
beth, who  were  next  him  in  the  succession  by  his  father's 
will,  and  to  bequeath  the  crown  to  his  cousin,  Jane  Grey,^ 
who  was  married  to  Guilford  Dudley,  Northumberland's 
own  son  (see  Table,  p.  295).  This  having  been  done, 
Edward's  health  declined  more  rapidly,  and  he  died  in  the 
sixteenth  year  of  his  age. 

500.  Lady  Jane  was  crowned,  against  her  will,  and  for 
ten  days  a  small  circle  called  her  queen.  But  the  true 
queen,  Mary  Tudor,  was  welcomed  to  London  with  shouts 
of  loyalty;  and  Northumberland,  with  his  chief  accom- 
plices, was  beheaded  for  high  treason.  Lady  Jane  and  her 
husband  were  spared  on  account  of  their  youth  and  inno- 
cence; but  the  next  year  a  rebellion  of  some  of  their 
friends  brought  them  to  the  scaffold. 

501.  Queen  Mary  (A.  D.  1553-1558)  soon  consented  to 
a  marriage  with  her  cousin,  Philip  of  Spain  (§  470),  though 
her  best  councilors  dreaded  that  great  power  which  ruled 
so  large  a  part  of  Europe  and  the  New  World  (§  444), 


292  MODERN  HISTORY. 

and  was  believed  to  be  aiming  at  universal  dominion. 
Mary's  strongest  desire  was  to  restore  the  pope's  suprem- 
acy in  England,  and  in  this  she  was  aided  by  her  husband 
and  her  cousin,  Cardinal  Pole,  who  was  appointed  papal 
legate.  The  latter  was  a  good  man  and  counseled  gentle 
measures,  but  Philip  and  Mary  leaned  rather  to  the  brutal 
policy  of  Gardiner,  under  which  nearly  three  hundred 
persons  were  burned  to  death  as  heretics.  Among  them 
were  Cranmer  and  the  good  bishops,  Ridley  and  Latimer. 

502.  To  please  her  husband,  Mary  plunged  into  a  war 
with  France,  and  lost  Calais,  the  last  remaining  foothold 
of  the  English  on  the  continent.  Vexation  at  this  loss 
and  at  Philip's  neglect  threw  her  into  a  fever,  of  which 
she  died  in  the  sixth  year  of  her  reign  (see  §477). 

503.  The  accession  of  Elizabeth  (A.  D.  1558- 1603), 
daughter  of  Anne  Boleyn,  was  welcomed  with  universal 
joy.  Learning  wisdom  by  her  sister's  mistake,  she  refused 
all  offers  of  marriage  from  Philip  of  Spain  and  others, 
declaring  that  she  was  wedded  only  to  her  realm,  and 
would  never  give  it  a  foreign  master.  Her  first  Parliament 
restored  the  English  Church  as  in  Edward's  day,  with  the 
queen  instead  of  the  pope  at  its  head.  Almost  as  many 
persons  lost  their  lives  by  denying  Elizabeth's  supremacy, 
as  had  suffered  under  her  unhappy  sister's  persecutions; 
but  it  must  be  remembered  that  many  of  them  w^ere  also 
traitors.  The  pope  had  publicly  denied  Elizabeth's  claims 
as  queen,  and  her  mother's  as  wife  (§492);  and  her 
cousin,  Mary  of  Scotland,  who  was  in  fact  the  next  heir, 
had,  with  his  approval,  adopted  the  arms  and  title  of 
Queen  of 'England  (see  Table,  p.  223). 

504.  Two  years  after  Elizabeth's  accession  Mary  re- 
turned, a  widow,  to  her  native  land.  She  had  been  edu- 
cated as  a  Catholic,  amid  the  gay  and  elegant  amusements 
of  the  French  court,  and  both  her  religion  and  her  manners 
shocked  the  grave  Reformers  who  now  had  the  chief  in- 


REIGN  OF  ELIZABETH.  293 

Huence  in  Scotland.  In  1565  she  married  Lord  Darnley 
(see  Table),  a  dissolute  and  contemptible  youth,  who  soon 
lost  her  confidence.  In  revenge  for  her  displeasure,  he 
brutally  murdered  her  secretary  at  her  very  feet.  A  few 
months  later,  the  house  in  which  Darnley  alone  was  sleep- 
ing was  blown  up  with  gunpowder,  and  he  was  killed. 
The  dark  suspicion  which  fell  upon  the  queen  was  deep- 
ened by  her  marrying  the  Earl  of  Both  well,  who  was  known 
to  have  been  concerned  in  the  murder  of  Darnley. 

505.  Mary  was  imprisoned,  and  her  infant  son  was 
crowned..  She  escaped,  was  defeated  in  battle,  and  took 
refuge  in  England,  where  she  was  tried  by  a  commission  of 
Scottish  and  English  nobles  for  the  murder  of  her  husband. 
No  sentence  was  pronounced,  but  she  was  imprisoned  nine- 
teen years  in  England,  the  center  of  innumerable  plots 
against  the  life  and  government  of  Elizabeth,  and  was  at 
length  beheaded  in  Fotheringay  Castle. 

506.  Elizabeth,  meanwhile,  by  wise  and  thrifty  manage- 
ment, had  restored  happiness  and  order  to  her  kingdom. 
While  Philip's  persecutions  in  the  Netherlands  were  driv- 
ing the  most  skillful  and  industrious  of  his  subjects  into 
exile,  Elizabeth  welcomed  all  artisans  on  condition  of  their 
taking  one  English  apprentice  each,  and  thus  many  fine 
manufactures  became  established  in  the  country.  English 
merchants  and  sailors  joined  heartily  in  the  maritime 
adventures   of   the    time. 

507.  Francis  Drake*  sailed  around  the  globe,  and  came 
back  laden  with  Spanish  gold.  Others  penetrated  the 
northern  seas  and  opened  a  trade  with  Archangel  in 
Russia,  while  the  gold  and  ivory  of  the  Guinea  coast  en- 
riched the  merchants  of  Southampton.  Sir  Walter  Raleigh® 
attempted  a  settlement  in  a  region  of  North  America, 
which  was  named  Virginia,  in  honor  of  the  maiden  queen. 
The  enterprise  was  abandoned  for  a  time,  owing  to  perils 


294  MODERN  HISTORY. 

at  home;  but  the  capital  of  North  Carolina  still  commem- 
orates the  gallant  adventurer. 

508.  In  1588  Philip  of  Spain  fitted  out  an  immense 
fleet  to  avenge  the  death  of  Mary  Stuart,  and  assert  his 
own  claim  to  the  English  crown,  which  she  had  bequeathed 
him.  If  any  thing  had  been  wanting  to  unite  all  English 
hearts  in  love  and  loyalty  to  Elizabeth,  this  insolence  would 
have  supplied  it.  All  ranks,  classes,  and  religions  worked 
together  with  a  common  zeal  for  the  defense,  and  Eliza- 
beth proved  her  generous  confidence  by  bestowing  on  Lord 
Howard  of  Effingham,  a  Catholic  nobleman,  the  command 
of  her  fleet. 

509.  At  length  the  ''Invincible  Armada"  appeared, 
stretching  seven  miles  from  wing  to  wing,  and  composed 
of  the  largest  vessels  that  had  ever  been  seen.  The  Eng- 
lish ships  were  smaller  and  lighter,  but  their  captains  knew 
the  coast  and  could  easily  harass  the  clumsy  enemy.  In 
the  "English  Salamis,"  as  in  the  Greek  (§§  54,  118),  valor 
and  patriotism  won  the  day  against  immensely  superior 
numbers.  Attempting  to  retreat  northward,  the  Spaniards 
were  wrecked  among  the  Orkneys  and  upon  the  west  coast 
of  Ireland;  and  it  was  only  a  tattered  remnant  of  the  In- 
vincible Armada  that  re-entered  the  ports  of  Spain.  From 
this  time  England  ruled  the  sea.  The  great  Spanish  galle- 
ons, laden  with  the  gold  of  Mexico  and  Peru,  often  fell 
into  the  hands  of  Drake  and  his  brave  comrades;  and  their 
capture  lessened  Philip's  power  for  mischief. 

510.  Ireland  was,  as  usual,  in  rebellion,  and  Elizabeth's 
chief  favorite,  the  young  Earl  of  Essex,  failed  in  his 
attempt  to  subdue  it.  The  queen's  displeasure  drove  him 
into  sedition,  and  she  reluctantly  signed  his  death-warrant, 
but  she  never  recovered  from  the  grief  which  it  cost  her. 
She  shut  herself  up  in  her  palace,  refused  food,  and  died 
in  the   70th  year  of  her  age  and  the  45th  of  her  reign. 


FAAf/LY  or   Tl'DON.  295 

With  her  ended  the   English  Tudors,    and  James  VI.  of 

Scotland,  son  of  ihc  unfortunate  Mary,  came  to  the  throne. 

511.  The  Elizalx'than  Age  was,  i)erhaps,  the  brightest 
of  England's  literary  eras.  The  wonderful  events  and  dis- 
coveries of  the  day  kept  all  minds  active,  and  the  language 
reached  its  perfection  in  the  musical  verse  of  Six^nser,  the 
romance  of  Sidney,  the  rugged  treatises  of  Hooker,  the 
wise  philosophy  of  Bacon,  and  the  wonderful  dramas  of 
Shakespeare.  The  queen  was  well  versed  in  Greek,  Latin, 
and  several  modern  languages. 

The  success  of  Elizabeth's  reign  was  largely  owing  to 
her  able  ministers,  Ce'cil,  Wal'singham,  and  others;  but, 
in  spite  of  many  faults  of  personal  character,  the  queen 
herself  must  rank  among  the  greatest  sovereigns  of  her 
time. 

Read  Green's  "Short  History,"  Ch.  VI,  Sections  iv  and  v,  and 
Ch.    VII. 


THE   TUDORS    IX    ENGLAND   AND   SCOTLAND. 

Henky  VII. 

I 


Margaret  m.  i,  ,  m.  2,  Douglas.     Henry  VIII.     Mary  m. Brandon, 

/a;m-.y /K  of  Scotland.     Earl  of  Angus.  |  Duke  of  Suffolk. 

Edward  VI.     Mary.     Elizabeth. 


James  V.  m.^Iary  Margaret  m.  Stuart,   Earl  of  Lennox.       Frances 

Suffolk. 


of  Guise.  I  Henry  Grey, 

'  D.  of  : 


Mary,    married Henry  Stuart,   Lord  Darnlcy.  lane  Grey, 

I  beheaded,  1554. 

James   VI.  of  Scotland,  after\v.-irds  James  L  of  England. 


Sovereigns  of  England  are  in  Capitals,  those  of  Scotland  in  Italics. 


296 


MODERN  HISTOK  V. 


NOTES. 

1.  The  first  of  these  "i^retenders"  was  Lambert  Simnel,  a  baker's 
boy,  whom  an  Oxford  priest,  named  Simon,  undertook  to  instruct  in 
the  behavior  suitable  to  a  prince.  Wlien  liis  lessons  were  completed, 
he  was  accompanied  by  his  tutor  to  Ireland,  where  the  people  were 
known  to  be  warmly  attached  to  the  House  of  York,  and  especially  to 
the  Duke  of  Clarence,  father  to  the  real  earl  whom  Simnel  personated, 
who  had  been  their  lord-lieutenant.    Landing  in  Dublin,  the  supposed 

frince  was  greeted  with  loyal  acclamations  as  "  King  Edward  the  Sixth." 
n  England  the  imposture  was  quickly  exposed  by  bringing  the  true 
Edward  from  his  prison  in  tJie  Tower,  and  parading  him  in  the  streets 
of  London.  But  the  Dowager  Duchess  of  Burgundy,  widow  of  Charles 
the  Bold  (§413,  and  note,  p.  233),  either  willingly  deceived  or  easily  con- 
vinced by  the  representations  that  were  made  to  her,  sent  over  a  force 
of  German  mercenaries  to  co-operate  with  Simon's  Irish  troops.  The 
rebellion  was  effectually  crushed,  however,  by  the  royal  victory  at  Stoke, 
and  the  pretended  Plantagenet,  being  too  insignificant  to  be  feared, 
became  a  scullion  in  the  king's  kitchen. 

The  second  attempt  was  more  serious.  It  was  led  by  Perkin,  or  Pe- 
terkin,  Warbeck,  son  of  a  merchant  of  Tournay.  He  probably  bore  some 
real  resemblance  to  the  Yorkist  princes,  and,  as  the  murder  in  the  Tower 
had  been  carefully  concealed,  there  was  no  apparent  improbability  in 
the  stoiy  of  the  escape  and  subsequent  liiding  of  Richard.  In  any  case, 
there  were  enemies  of  Henry  VII.  who  were  willing  to  countenance 
any  claimant  of  his  crown.  King  Charles  VIII.,  of  France  (gg  441-445), 
entertained  the  Pretender  in  Paris  with  all  the  splendor  that  befitted  a 
royal  reception,  and  the  Duchess  of  Burgundy,  after  close  scrutiny  and 
questioning,  professed  herself  perfectly  satisfied  that  he  was  her  long- 
lost  nephew.  Tiie  King  of  Scotland  went  farther,  and  not  only  received 
him  with  royal  honors,  but  gave  him  a  noble  lady  for  his  wife,  and 
invaded  England  in  the  hope  that  at  least  the  Yorkshire  people  would 
rise  in  favor  of  their  native  prince.  But  this  hope  was  disappointed, 
and  Perkin  took  refuge  in  Ireland.  Meanwhile,  the  poor  miners  of 
Cornwall  had  been  driven  to  desperation  by  the  heavy  taxes  laid 
upon  them  by  the  king;  and.  when  the  pretended  prince  appeared 
among  them,  lie  was  soon  at  the  head  of  7,000  brave  men.  But,  on  the 
approach  of  the  royal  army,  "  King  Richard  IV."  fied,  leaving  his  fol- 
lowers to  their  fate.  The  Plantagenets,  with  all  their  faults,  never  lacked 
personal  bravery;  and  thus  Perkin's  imposture  was  proved  by  his  own 
act.  No  one  mourned  when  he  was  hanged  at  Tyburn;  but  many  were 
shocked  and  grieved  a  few  days  later  by  the  iniquitous  execution  of  the 
young  Earl  of  Warwick,  an  innocent  victim  of  other  people's  crimes. 

2.  There  is  a  tradition  that  Wolsey  was  the  son  of  a  butcher;  but  if 
so,  it  is  the  more  remarkable  that  he  obtained  his  degree  at  Oxford 
when  only  fifteen  years  of  age.  He  first  distinguished  himself  as  chap- 
lain to  Henry  VII.  by  the  promptness  and  tact  with  which  he  executed 
a  diflicult  mission  to  the  Emperor  Maximilian.  Early  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  VIII.,  Wolsej^  became  royal  almoner,  and,  thus  introduced  to 
the  king's  notice,  his  talents  as  a  courtier  ensured  his  rise.  Though  he 
was  really  the  mainspring  of  all  tliat  was  done  in  England,  he  contrived 
to  make  every  measure  of  the  government  appear  the  direct  act  of  the 
king,  to  whom  he  behaved  with  the  most  humble  deference  and  submis- 
sion. Like  the  king  himself,  "Wolsey  was  a  friend  of  the  New  Learning, 
and  a  munificent  patron  of  learned  men.  He  founded  the  first  profes- 
sorship of  Greek  in  England;  he  established  a  school  at  Ipswich  and  a 
college  at  Oxford.  The  latter  was  first  called  Cardinal  College,  but,  after 
his  fall,  its  name  was  changed  to  Christ's  Church.  Its  magnificent 
buildings  still  attest  the  Cardinal's  taste  and  liberality.  His  two  man- 
sions, Hampton  Court  and  Whitehall,  became  royal  palaces. 

3.  The  Duke  of  Cleves,  Anne's  brother,  was  one  of  the  greatest 
Protestant  princes  on  the  continent;  for,  besides  his  hereditary  pi'ovinces 
of  Cleves,  Berg,  Juliers,  and  Ravensberg— the  territories  which  after- 
wards constituted  West  Prussia — he  had  lately  become  possessed  of  Zut- 
phen  and  Guelders.  Henrj'^  was  led  to  this  marriage  by  his  resentment 
against  Francis  I.,  who  had  broken  his  friendly  alliance,  and  was  even 


NOTES,  297 


said  to  bo  plotting  with  Chnrlcs  V.  nnd  tlio  King  of  Scotlnn<l  for  a  jmr- 
tition  of  Henry's  duniinion.s.  TIioukIi  lio  IjjuI  been  willhiK  to  pleaHt;  Iiih 
Protestiuit  rouitloi-sund  ally  lilnisolf  with  tlie  loiigucof  (Jornian  nrinres, 
lltMiry's  nuirriagc  was  as  transient  as  the  oaus<»  out  of  which  It  Kfcw. 
Anno  meekly  aecepttnl  a  homo  and  revenues  in  England,  and  HurvlveU 
the  King  by  ten  years. 

4.  Catherine  Howard  was  a  niece  of  the  Puke  of  Norfolk,  and 
cousin  of  Anne  l^oleyn.  During  her  niarrletl  life,  tljc  duke  ha<l  much 
inlluenco  at  court,  anil  used  it  to  om)osc  Protestant  Interests.  .SlH)rtly 
before  tlie  King's  death,  Norfolk  and  his  accomplished  son,  the  Karl  of 
Surrey,  wore  arrested  for  treason  and  sentenced  to  execution.  Hurrey 
was  beheadetl,  but  the  timely  decease  of  Henry  spared  his  father's  life. 

5.  Catherine  Parr  was  the  widow  of  Lord  Ljitimer,  when,  in  ir>l.3,  she 
became  the  wife  of  Henry  VIII.  With  the  progress  of  disease,  the  king 
bee4\mo  Increasingly  fond  of  disputes,  and  tlie  liveliness  of  the  queen's 
replies  once  oll'entled  hlin  so  seriously  that  he  was  on  the  point  of  or- 
dering her  to  the  scatlold.  Put,  perceiving  her  danger,  Catherine  a.ssnred 
him  that  she  had  only  taken  the  opposite  side  to  allord  liim  the  pleas- 
ure of  refuting  her.  and  lest  the  discussion  should  grow  dull.  The  king 
could  hardly  alfoixl  to  lose  so  entertaining  u  companion,  and  was  soon 
reconciled. 

0.  Northumberland  was  a  son  of  Edmund  Dudley,  a  lawyer  who  had 
been  a  notorious  tool  of  Henry  VII.  In  extorting  money  from  his  sub- 
iecUs  (I;  48G).  On  the  accession  of  Henry  VIII.,  Dudley  was  tried  and  con- 
demne<l  to  death.  His  son,  however,  gained  the  King's  favor,  and  was 
made  Lord  High  Admiral  of  England.    His  ambition  knew  no  limits. 

7.  No  character  in  history  surpasses  in  grace  and  loveliness  that  of 
Jane  Grey.  8he  always  preferred  a  modest  and  studious  retirement  to 
the  splendid  amusements  of  a  court.  At  fifteen  she  was  studying  He- 
brew; while  in  Greek  and  Latin,  French  and  Italian,  she  was  able  to 
converse  and  correspond  with  the  most  learned  men  of  the  age.  At  the 
time  of  her  marriage,  no  one  informed  her  of  the  plot  to  make  her 
queen,  and  when  the  Council  of  Nobles  announced  to  her  Edwaixl's 
death,  and  her  own  accession  to  the  crown,  she  fell  into  a  dead  swoon 
from  grief  and  terror.  Submitting  herself  at  length  to  her  father's  com- 
mand, she  nerved  herself  to  act  with  justice  and  decision,  and  to  thwart, 
if  possible,  the  ambitious  schemes  of  her  father-in-law.  When  the  short 
farce  of  her  queenship  was  over,  she  expressed  a  joyful  sense  of  relief, 
and  begged  that  she  might  go  home  to  tier  studies.  She  endured  her 
Imprisonment  in  the  Tower  with  gentleness  and  patience,  and  tried  to 
inspire  courage  in  her  husband.    They  were  executed  In  February,  1554. 

8.  Drake  was  born  in  Devonshire  about  1540.  After  various  bucca- 
neering enterprises  against  the  Spanish,  West  Indian,  and  American 
settlements,  he  conducted  five  vessels  to  the  Pacific,  and  obtained  im- 
mense treasures  on  the  coast  of  Chili  and  Peru.  He  afterwards  explored 
the  western  shores  of  North  America,  wintered  near  San  Francisco. 
cros.sed  the  Pacific  to  the  Moluccas,  and  returned  by  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope.  Queen  Elizabeth  knighted  him  as  a  reward  for  this  daring  cruise, 
and  dined  with  him  on  board  his  ship,  which  she  ordered  to  be  pre- 
served as  a  monument.  It  must  be  confessed  that  most  of  Drake's  en- 
terprises were  piratical,  as  they  were  executed  when  the  governments 
of  Spain  and  England  were  at  peace.  He  had,  however,  his  part  in 
open  warfare,  and  contributed  largely  to  the  defeat  of  the  Armada. 

9.  Raleigh  also  was  a  native  of  Devonshire.  After  studying  at  Ox- 
foi-d  he  served  five  years  in  France  in  aid  of  the  Huguenots,  and  after- 
wards against  reliels  in  Ireland.    He  is  said  to  have  gained  the  favor  of 


Queen  Elizabeth  by  flinging  his  velvet  cloak  upon  a  muddy  place  In 
the  path  by  which  she  was  walking  from  her  barge  to  her  palace.  In 
1584,  he  received  from  her  a  patent  authorizing  him  to  colonize  and 


govern  any  territories  he  might  acquire  beyond  the  sea.s.  His  two  at- 
tempts on  Roanoke  Island  failed:  but  he  is  said  to  have  introduced  tho 
potato  and  tobacco  into  Europe  from  the  New  World. 


CHAPTER  V. 


RISE    OF    THE    DUTCH    REPUBLIC. 


M. 


'E  have  seen  that  the  seventeen 
duchies,  counties,  and  baronies, 
known  collectively  as  the  Nether- 
lands,* or  Low  Countries,  had 
all  become  subject  to  the  French 
dukes  of  Burgundy  (§§409-413). 
On  the  death  of  Charles  the  Bold, 
in  1477,  Burgundy  was  reannexed 
to  France,  but  the  Netherlands, 
by  the  marriage  of  his  daughter 
Mary  to  Maximilian,  were  trans- 
ferred to  the  House  of  Austria. 
No  part  of  Europe  was  so  fertile 
and  prosperous  as  these  Low 
Countries;  none  had  so  many 
thriving  cities  or  such  intelligent 
and  industrious  people.  Their 
silks,  velvets,  woolen  cloth,  and 
fine  armor  were  celebrated 
throughout  Europe.  Though  ruled  by  one  sovereign,  each 
province  had  its  own  government,  and  their  representa- 
tives were  only  now  and  then  called  together  in  the  "States 
General"  when  Charles  or  Philip  wanted  money. 


Flemish  Costume, 
XVII.  Century. 


*  These  were  the  duchies  of  Brabant,  Limburg,  Luxemburg,  and 
Guelders;  the  margi'avate  of  Antwerp;  the  counties  of  Artois,  Flanders, 
Hainault,  Namur,  Zutphen,  Holland,  and  Zealand ;  and  the  baronies 
of  Mechlin,  Utrecht,  Friesland,  Overyssel,  and  Groningen. 

Name  these  countries  and  their  chief  cities  from  Map   No.  11. 
(29S) 


THE  PRINCE  OF  ORANGE,  299 

513.  Charles  V.  had  been  born  in  Ghent,' and  was  suj)- 
posed  to  favor  his  Flemish  subjects,  to  the  great  discontent 
of  the  Spaniards.  But  he  constantly  violated  the  chartered 
rights  of  the  provinces  which  he  had  sworn  to  maintain. 
By  eleven  successive  edicts,  and  by  tlie  establishment  of 
the  Inquisition,  Charles  tried  to  stop  the  Reformation  in 
the  Netherlands,  and  many  of  his  best  subjects  sealed  their 
faith  with  their  blood. 

514.  Philip  II.  (§470)  was  a  still  more  cruel  bigot.^  He 
declared  that  he  would  lose  a  hundred  thousand  lives 
rather  than  see  any  of  his  dominions  severed  from  the 
ancient   church.      On  his  departure   for   Spain, 

Philip  entrusted  the  regency  of  the  Netherlands  '  '^^^ 

to  his  half-sister,  the  Duchess  of  Parma.  Among  her 
councilors  was  William,  Prince  of  Orange,^  then  chiefly 
renowned  for  his  vast  wealth  and  illustrious  descent,  but 
soon  to  win  a  nobler  fame  by  his  self-denying  patriotism. 

515.  Philip's  stern  order  of  ''death  to  heretics,"  led 
many  thousands  to  seek  safety  in  other  lands  (§506). 
The  Prince  of  Orange,  as  governor  of  Holland  and  Zea- 
land, refused  to  permit  the  burning  of  his  countrymen, 
and  many  nobles  and  citizens  leagued  themselves  to  demand 
a  retraction  of  the  hated  edicts.  The  duchess  was  alarmed, 
but  her  council  branded  the  petitioners  as  a  "pack  of 
beggars."  The  name  was  adopted  by  the  nobles  them- 
selves at  a  banquet,  with  shouts  of  merriment  and  cries 
of  ''Long  live  the  Beggars!" 

516.  Thousands  of  the  people  now  began  to  meet  in 
excited  crowds,  which  broke  into  cathedrals,  shattered  the 
beautiful  stained  glass  of  their  windows,  and  dashed  the 
images  to  the  ground.  In  a  battle  near  Ant- 
werp, 1800  "Beggars"  were  slain.  Philip  now  '^  ^ 
sent  the  Duke  of  Alva,  a  pitiless  monster,  to  put  down 
resistance  with  fire  and  sword.  Defying  all  the  laws,  he 
organized  a  "Council  of  Blood"  in   his  own  house,  and 


300  MODERN  HISTORY. 

summoned  before  it  the  chief  opponents  of  the  edicts.  The 
Prince  of  Orange,  now  in  Germany,  refused  to  appear. 
Counts  Egmont  and  Horn  were  tried  and  beheaded  in  the 
great  square  at  Brussels,  A.  D.  1568.  A  decree  of  the 
Inquisition  condemned  the  entire  population  of  the  Nether- 
lands, with  a  few  special  exceptions,  to  death !  Of  course 
this  was  not  literally  executed,  but  it  removed  the  protec- 
tion of  law  from  all;  and  Alva  boasted  of  18,000  lives 
destroyed  during  his  regency  of  six  years. 

517.  Industry  ceased;  towns  were  deserted;  all  the 
wealthy  who  could  leave  fled  beyond  the  sea;  many  bold 
spirits  took  to  privateering,  and  made  the  name  of  "Sea 
Beggars"  a  terror  to  Spanish  sailors.  Their  prizes  were 
at  first  carried  into  English  ports;  but,  after  four  years. 
Queen  Elizabeth  forbade  this  for  fear  of  involving  herself 
in  a  war  with  Spain.  The  Sea  Beggars  then  seized  Briel, 
the  capital  of  Zealand,  and  made  it  the  beginning  of  a 
new  Republic.     The  four  provinces  of  Holland,  Zealand, 

Friesland,  and  Utrecht  declared  the  Prince 
uy  15,  1572.  ^^  Orange  their  lawful  ''stadtholder,"  or  lieu- 
tenant, during  the  absence  of  Philip  11.  In  1573,  Alva 
was  succeeded  by  Requesens,  a  just  man,  who  at  least 
put  a  stop  to  indiscriminate  murders.  But  the  war  still 
went  on. 

518.  The  prince  lost  several  battles,  and,  in  1574,  his 
brother,  Louis  of  Nassau,  was  slain  near  Nimeguen.  But 
the  spirit  of  the  whole '  people  was  aroused,  and  their 
constancy  was  proved  by  their  heroic  defense  of  Haarlem, 
Alkmaar,  and  Leyden,  against  the  besieging  forces  of  the 
Spaniards.     Leyden  was  relieved  only  by  cutting  the  dykes 

and  letting  the  sea  overflow  the  surrounding 

'^  '  ^^'^^'  country,    that   the    fleet   of  the   prince    might 

approach  its  walls.      At  last  the  starving  citizens  were  fed, 

and  then  all  went  in  procession  to  the  cathedral  to  thank 

God  for  His  great  deliverance. 


THE  DUTCH  REPUBLIC,  301 

519.  The  death  of  Requesens,  in  1576,  was  followed  by 
new  horrors;  for  liis  unpaid  soldiery  were  set  loose  upon 
the  cities,  plunckTing,  destroying,  and  murdering  at  their 
will.  In  Antwerp  alone  1,000  houses  were  burned,  and 
8,000  people  were  killed.  Under  this  distress,  the  Prince 
of  Orange  persuaded  all  the  provinces  to  unite  themselves 
in  the  Pacification  of  Ghent,  and  afterwards  in  the  still 
closer  Union  of  Brussels.  But,  unhappily,  the  different 
parties  could  not  agree;  the  union  was  dissolved,  and  the 
seventeen  provinces  were  never  reunited  until  1814.  The 
l)rince,  however,  secured  a  permanent  union  of  the  seven 
northern  states,  under  the  name  of  the  United  Netherlands. 
Holland  far  excelled  the  others  in  power  and  wealth,  and 
the  whole  confederation  is  commonly  called  the  Dutch 
Republic, 

520.  John  of  Austria,  the  hero  of  Lepanto  (^561),  was 
now  intrusted,  by  Philip,  with  the  government  of  the 
Netherlands.  He  gained  a  great  victory  at  Gemblours, 
which  almost  annihilated  the  army  of  the  States;  but  he 
died  two  years  later,  and  was  succeeded  by  Alexandei  of 
Parma,  son  of  the  former  regent,  and  the  greatest  general 
of  his  time.  In  1581,  the  thirteen  Flemish  and  northern 
provinces  formally  cast  off  their  allegiance  to  Philip  H., 
and  conferred  their  sovereignty  upon  the  Duke  of  Anjou, 
brother  of  the  French  king,  who  solemnly  swore  to  defend 
and  maintain  their  liberties  according  to  the  charters. 
But  he  was  a  traitor  at  heart,  and,  upon  his  giving  up 
Antwerp  to  be  plundered  by  his  soldiers,  he  was  driven 
into  France. 

521.  In  1584,  the  Prince  of  Orange  was  murdered  in 
his  own  house  by  a  hired  agent  of  Philip  of  Spain.  This 
foul  crime  seemed  a  death-blow  to  the  liberties  of  the 
Netherlands;  for  the  wisdom,  firmness,  and  incorruptible 
fidelity  of  the  prince  had  been  their  only  sure  dependence 
amid   dissensions  within   and   dangers   from  without.      But 


302  MODERN  HISTORY. 

the  blow  aroused  the  States  to  the  necessity  of  united 
action;  and,  on  the  very  day  of  the  murder,  the  represent- 
atives of  Holland  declared  their  resolution  "to  maintain 
the  good  cause,  with  God's  help,  to  the  uttermost,  without 
sparing  gold  or  blood." 

522.  The  year  following  the  prince's  death  was  sadly 
marked  by  the  fall  of  Antwerp.  It  had  bravely  withstood 
thirteen  months'  siege  by  Alexander  of  Parma;  when  it  was 
taken,  the  ruined  homes  of  its  citizens  supplied  materials 
for  a  new  fortress,  while  grass  grew  and  cattle  fed  in 
streets  which  had  been  crowded  with  traders  from  all 
parts  of  the  world.  Antwerp  had  succeeded  Florence 
(§369)  as  the  banking  center  of  Europe;  this  distinction 
now  passed  to  London,  whither  great  numbers  of  its  bankers 
and  merchants  removed. 

523.  In  1596,  both  England  and  France  became  allies 
of  the  States  against  Spain.  Cadiz  was  taken  and  plun- 
dered, and  many  treasure-laden  vessels  from  the  Spanish 
colonies  became  the  prizes  of  the  Sea  Beggars.  The  war 
was  ended  by  the  Peace  of  Vervins  in  May,  1598.  A  few 
days  later,  the  ten  southern  provinces  of  the  Netherlands 
were  settled  upon  Philip's  daughter  Isabella  and  her  hus- 
band; and,  for  fear  that  either  should  exceed  the  other  in 
rank,  both  were  styled  "///^  Archdukes.'''' 

524.  The  eldest  son  of  the  Prince  of  Orange  was  a 
prisoner  in  Spain.  The  second  son,  Maurice  of  Nassau, 
succeeded  to  the  command  of  the  States'  forces,  and,  as 
he  grew  to  manhood,  developed  extraordinary  talents  for 
war.  He  gained  the  batde  of  Turnhout  by  the  then  novel 
device  of  arming  his  cavalry  with  pistols.  At  length,  in 
1609,  an  honorable  truce  closed  forty  years'  war  with 
Spain,  and  secured  to  the  Dutch  Republic  not  only  its 
undisputed  territory  at  home,  but  the  Spice  Islands,  and 
freedom  of  trade  with  both  Indies.  Not  until  forty  years 
later,  however,  did  Spain  acknowledge  its  independence. 


DEATH  OF  PHlirP  IL  303 

525.  In  1598,  Philip  died.  His  42  years'  reign  had 
begun  in  unexampled  prosperity,  and  ended  in  disgrace. 
In  1580  he  had  concpiered  Portugal  and  added  all  her 
rich  possessions  in  Asia  and  America  (§§435,  436)  to  his 
own  dominions,  which  now  included  one  third  of  all  the 
land  on  the  globe.  But  he  had  ruined  his  realms  by  his 
stupid  tyranny;  and,  with  all  the  gold  and  diamonds  of  the 
New  World  at  his  disposal,  he  died  a  bankrupt.  His  son, 
Philip  III.,  was  a  dull  bigot,  and  though  his  dominion 
was  still  the  greatest  in  Europe,  it  ceased  to  have  a  con- 
trolling part  in  the  world's  affairs. 

The  United  Netherlands  were  already  the  chief  maritime 
nation  in  the  world.  Their  sailors  were  the  boldest  and 
most  skillful,  their  ships  the  best  modeled;  and  a  Dutch 
Indiaman  would  sail  round  the  globe  while  a  Spaniard  or 
Portuguese  was  making  only  the  outward  passage  to  Asia. 
Naturally,  therefore,  the  rich  commerce  with  the  Indies 
fell  into  tlie  hands  of  the  Dutch.  They  had  a  thousand 
vessels  engaged  in  the  Baltic  trade,  and  nearly  as  many 
more  in  fisheries.  Meanwhile  the  industry  of  farmers  and 
manufacturers  had  made  the  Seven  States  the  most  pros- 
perous and  productive  portion  of  the  European  continent. 

Point  out,  on  Map  No.  11,  Ghent,  Antwerp,  Brussels,  Leyden, 
Amsterdam.  The  seven  (northern)  United  Netherlands.  The  ten 
(southern)  Spanish  Netherlands. 

Read  Motley's  "Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic"  and  "History  of 
the  United  Netherlands." 

NOTES. 

1.  "  As  early  as  the  fourteenth  century,  the  age  of  the  Arteveldes, 
Froissart  estimated  the  numt>er  of  fighting  men  whom  Ghent  could 
bring  into  tlie  field  at  «U,0(X).  The  city,  by  itsjurisdiction  over  many  large 
but  subordinate  towns,  disposed  of  more  than  its  own  immediate  pop- 
ulation, wliicli  has  been  reckoned  as  high  as  21)0,000.  Its  streets  and 
squares  were  spacious  and  elegant;  its  chui*ches  and  other  public  build- 
ings, numerous  and  splendid.  The  sumptuous  church  of  St.  BavoUj  where 
Charles  V.  had  been  baptize<l,  the  ancient  ciustle  whither  Baldwin  Bras 
de  Fer  had  brought  the  daughter  of  Charles  the  Bold;  the  well-known 
l)elfry,  where  swung  the  famous  Roland,  whose  iron  tongue  hrnl  called 
the  citizens,  generation  after  generation,  to  arms,  were  all  conspicuous 
in  the  city  and  celebrated  in  the  land.     Especially  the  great  bell  was 


304  MODERN  HISTORY. 


the  object  of  the  burghers'  affection,  aud,  generally,  of  the  sovereign's 
hatred;  while  to  all  it  seemed  a  living  historical  personage,  endowed 
with  the  human  powers  and  passions  which  it  had  so  long  directed  and 
inflamed." — Motley''s  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic,  I. 

In  1540,  for  its  just  resistance  to  an  enormous  tax,  Charles  "annulled 
all  the  chartei-s,  privileges,  and  laws  "  of  his  native  city ;  confiscated  all 
its  public  property,  sentenced  the  great  bell  Roland  to  removal,  and  re- 
quired several  hundreds  of  the  most  noted  citizens,  as  representing  the 
rest,  to  beg  his  pardon  on  their  knees,  and  with  lialters  around  their 
necks,  for  their  "disloyalty,  disobedience,  etc."  He  made  "a  fine  show 
of  benignity"  in  granting  this  pardon;  but  his  sentence  was  meant  for 
the  death-blow  of  the  liberties  of  all  the  Netherlands.     The  northern 

Erovinces,  after  eighty  years'  heroic  struggle,  wrested  their  freedom  from 
is  successors;  but  the  prosperity  of  Ghent,  Antwerp,  and  most  of  the 
cities  of  the  ten  southern  provinces  was  effectually  destroyed. 

2.  "Thus  the  provinces  had  received  a  new  master.  A  man  of  for- 
eign birth  and  breeding,  not  speaking  a  word  of  their  language,  nor  of 
any  language  which  the  mass  of  the  inhabitants  understood,  was  now 
placed  in  supreme  authority  over  them,  because  he  represented,  through 
the  females,  the  'good'  Philip  of  Burgundy,  who,  a  century  before,  had 
possessed  liimself  by  inheritance,  purchase,  force,  or  fraud,  of  the  sov- 
ereignty of  most  of  those  provinces."  Philip  possessed  nothing  of  his 
fatlier's  gift  of  popularity.  "  He  was  disagreeable  to  the  Italians,  detest- 
able to  the  Flemings,  odious  to  the  Germans."  He  was  "sluggish  in 
character,  deficient  in  martial  enterprise,  as  timid  of  temperament  as  he 
was  fragile  and  sickly  of  frame."  "  His  mental  capacity  was  likewise 
not  very  much  esteemed.  His  talents  were,  in  truth,  very  much  below 
mediocrity.  His  mind  was  incredibly  small.  .  .  .  He  was  slow  in 
deciding,  slower  in  communicating  his  decisions.  He  took  refuge  in  a 
cloud  of  words,  sometimes  to  conceal  his  meaning,  oftener  to  conceal  the 
absence  of  any  meaning,  thus  mystifying,  not  only  others,  but  himself. 

"  His  education  had  been  but  meager.  In  an  age  when  all  kings  and 
noblemen  possessed  many  languages,  he  spoke  not  a  word  of  any 
tongue  but  Spanish.  .  .  .  The  gay,  babbling,  energetic,  noisy  life  of 
Flanders  and  Brabant  was  detestable  to  him.  The  loquacity  of  the 
Netherlanders  was  a  continual  reproach  upon  liis  taciturnity.  His  ed- 
ucation had  imbued  him,  too,  with  the  antiquated  international  hatred 
of  Spaniard  and  Fleming.  ...  Of  the  150  persons  who  composed  his 
court  at  Brussels,  nine  tenths  were  Spaniards.  Thus  it  is  obvious  how 
soon  he  disregarded  his  father's  precept  and  practice  in  this  respect, 
and  began  to  lay  the  foundation  of  that  renewed  hatred  to  Spaniards, 
which  was  soon  to  become  so  intense,  exuberant,  and  fatal  throughout 
every  class  of  Netherlanders."— Jlifo<te2/>  I- 

3.  "Tiie  Nassau  family  first  emerges  into  distinct  existence  in  the 
middle  of  the  eleventh  century.  It  divides  itself  into  two  great  branches. 
The  elder  remained  in  Germany,  ascended  the  imperial  throne  in  the 
pei-son  of  Adolph  of  Nassau,  and  gave  to  the  country  many  electors, 
bishops,  and  generals.  The  younger  and  more  illustrious  branch  trans- 
planted itself  to  tlie  Netherlands,  where  it  attained  to  great  power  and 
large  possessions.  The  ancestors  of  William,  as  Dukes  of  Gueldres,  had 
begun  to  exercise  sovereignty  in  the  provinces  four  centuries  before  the 
advent  of  the  House  of  Burgundy.  That  overshadowing  family  after- 
wards numbered  the  Netherland  Nassaus  among  its  most  staunch  and 
powerful  adherents.  Engelbert  the  Second  was  distinguished  in  the 
turbulent  councils  and  battle-fields  of  Charles  the  Bold,  and  was  after- 
wards the  unwavering  supporter  of  Maximilian."  His  nephew  Henry, 
"received  the  family  possessions  and  titles  in  Luxembourg,  Brabant, 
Flanders,  and  Holland,  and  distinguished  himself  in  the  service  of  the 
Burgundo-Austrian  House.  The  confidential  friend  of  Charles  V  ,  whose 
governor  he  had  been  in  that  emperor's  boyhood,  he  was  ever  his  most 
efficient  and  reliable  adherent.  It  was  he  whose  influence  placed  the 
imperial  crown  on  the  head  of  Charles."  He  married  a  sister  of  Prince 
Philibert  of  Orange,  and  his  son  Ren6  succeeded  Philibert.  "  The  little 
principality  of  Orange,  so  pleasantly  situated  between  Provence  and 
Dauphiny,'but  in  such  dangerous  proximity  to  the  '  Babylonian  captivity ' 
of  the  Popes  at  Avignon  (§367),  thus  passed  to  the  family  of  Nassau. 
The  title  was  of  high  antiquity.    Already  in  the  reign  of  Charlemagne, 


MAP  No.  XI. 


THE  NETHERLANDS. 


The  Netherlands  subject  to  Charlemagne      A.  D.  785. 
Divided  into  17  fiefs  under  great  vassals      .         .   800-900. 
Reunited  under  Duke  Philip  of  Burgundy   .         .    1437. 
Become  subject  to  House  of  Austria  by  marriage 

of  Maximilian  with  Mary  of  Burgundy      .    1477. 
Independence  of  the  Seven  Northern  Provinces:   1594. 

( Zealand,  Utrecht,  Overyssel,  '\ 

<  Holland,  Guelders,  Friesland.    V 
I                              Groningen,  J 

The  Spanish  Netherlands: 

TArtois,         Namur,  Brabant,      Liege,       ^ 

<  Flanders,     Luxemburg,     Mechlin      Hainault,  V 
i  Limburg,         Antwerp,  j 


Conferred  upon  the  Archdukes  (p.  228)  .  .  1598. 
Become  **  Austrian  Netherlands"  upon  Isabella's 

death 1633. 

Conquered,  or  liberated,  by  French  revolutionists  1794, 
Join  the  Northern  Provinces  in  Kingdom  of  the 

Netherlands  .  .         .1815. 

Separate  from   Holland  and  form   Kingdom  of 

Belgium 1830. 


SPANISH  NETHERLANDS  JS"  O  It  T  H         S 


:ejl 


and 
TITK  I  XITED  PROVINCES 

in  the 

Seventeenth  Century 

Scale  of  Miles. 


B.  H.  Vuil,  del. 


NOTES.  305 


(iuillaumo  an  Court  No*,  or  "  Wllllftin  with  the  8hort  Nose,"  hail  de- 
fcndcHl  the  llttlo  town  of  Omnpo  nRnlnst  the  Haraccns.  The  Interest  and 
jujthority  lU'ciuired  tn  the  <lenirsii«>s  tlius  uroserved  hy  his  viilnr  hccanio 
extensive,  and  in  proeess  of  tinir  licrtMlitary  in  Ills  race.  Tiie  prlnclimllty 
iKK'anjo  an  altsolute  and  free  s«»vertiKiity.  .  .  .  In  l.>(4,  Prince  Rene  <li(><l 
at  the  enipen>r's  feet  in  tl>e  trenches  of  St.  Dizler  CiUTI^.  Il<'  h;ffc  all 
his  titles  and  estates  to  his  eousin,  William  of  Nassau,  who  thus,  at  tho 
ago  of  11  years,  be<'an>e  William  tho  Ninth  of  Orantto.  For  thb*  child, 
whom  the  future  was  to  sumnum  to  such  high  destinies  and  such  he- 
n)ic  sacrifices,  the  past  and  present  seemed  to  have  gathered  riches  and 
power  together  from  many  sources." 

"At  a  very  early  age  he  canie,  as  a  page,  into  tlio  emiK»ror's  family. 
Charles  recognized,  with  his  customary  quickness,  tho  remarkable  char- 
ncter  of  the  boy.  At  tifteen,  William  was  the  intimate,  almost  confi- 
dential, friend  of  the  emperor,  who  prldetl  hiniself,  above  all  other  gifts, 
on  his  power  of  reading  and  of  using  n>en.  There  seenjod  to  bo  no  w;- 
crets  which  the  emperor  lield  too  high  for  the  comnrehenslon  or  dis- 
cretion of  his  page.  His  perceptive  and  reflective  faculties,  naturally 
of  renuirkable  keenness  and  depth,  thus  acquired  a  precocious  and  ex- 
traortlinary  develonment.  He  wa.s  brought  up  behind  the  curtain  of 
that  great  stage  wnere  the  world's  dramas  were  daily  enacted.  Care- 
fully to  observe  men's  actions,  and  silently  to  ponder  upon  their  mo- 
tives, was  the  favorite  occupation  of  the  prince  during  his  apprentice- 
ship at  court.  As  he  advanced  to  man's  estate,  he  was  selected  by  the 
emperor  for  the  highest  duties.  ...  It  was  the  Prince's  shoulder 
upon  which  the  emperor  leane<l  at  the  alxllcation  (§4"<0j'  the  prince's 
hand  which  bore  the  imperial  insignia  of  the  discrowned  monarch  to 
Fenlinand  at  Augsburg.  With  these  duties  his  relations  with  Charles 
were  ended,  and  those  with  Philip  begun.  He  was  the  secret  negotia- 
tor of  the  preliminary  arrangement  with  France,  soon  afterwards  con- 
firmed by  the  triumphant  treaty  of  April,  1559.  .  .  .  He  was  one  of 
the  hostages  selected  by  Henry  for  the  due  execution  of  the  treaty,  and, 
while  in  France,  made  that  remarkable  discovery  which  was  to  color 
his  life.  While  hunting  with  the  king  in  the  forest  of  Vincennes,  the 
prince  and  Henry  found  themselves  alone  together  and  separated  from 
the  rest  of  the  company.    The  French  monarch's  mind  was  full  of  tho 

f:reat  scheme  which  had  just  secretly  been  formed  between  I'hilip  and 
limself,  to  extirpate  Protestantism  by  a  general  extirpation  of  Protest- 
ants. .  .  .  This  conspiracy  of  the  two  kings  against  their  sublects  was 
the  matter  nearest  the  hearts  of  both.  The  iJuke  of  Alva,  a  fellow  host- 
age with  William  of  Orange,  was  the  plenipotentiary  to  conduct  this 
more  important  arrangement.  The  B'rench  monarch,  somewhat  imi)ru- 
dently  imagining  that  the  prince  wjxs  also  a  party  to  the  plot,  opened 
the  whole  subject  to  him  without  reserve.  .  .  .  The  prince,  although 
horror-struck  and  indignant  at  the  royal  revelations,  held  his  peace 
and  kept  liis  countenance.  .  .  .  William  of  Orange  earned  the  sur- 
name of  'the  Silent,'  from  the  manner  in  which  he  received  these  com- 
munications of  Henry,  without  revealing  to  the  monarch,  by  word  or 
look,  this  enormous  blunder  which  he  nad  committed.  His  purpose 
was  fixed  from  that  hour.  .  .  .  Although  having  as  yet  no  spark  of 
religious  sympathy  for  the  reformers,  he  could  not,  he  said,  out  feel 
compassion  for  so  many  virtuous  men  and  women  thus  devoted  to 
massacre,  and  he  determined  to  save  them  if  he  could.  ...  In  one 
of  his  last  interviews  with  Philip,  the  king  had  given  him  the  names 
of  several  'excellent  persons  suspected  of  the  new  religion,'  and  had 
commanded  him  to  have  them  put  to  death.  This,  however,  he  not 
only  omitted  to  do,  but,  on  the  contrary,  gave  them  warning,  so  that 
they  might  effect  their  escape,  'thinking  It  more  necessary  to  obey  God 
than  man.'  .  .  .  Yet  we  are  not  to  regard  William  of  Orange,  thus  on 
the  threshold  of  his  great  career,  by  the  light  diffused  from  a  some 
what  later  period.  He  was  dispose<l  for  an  ea.sy,  joyous,  luxurious, 
princely  life.  .  .  .  His  house,  the  splendid  Nassau  palace  of  Brussels, 
was  ever  open.  He  entertained  for  the  monarch,  who  was,  or  imag- 
ined himself,  too  poor  to  discharge  his  own  duties  In  this  respect,  but 
he  entertained,  at  his  own  expense.  Twenty-four  noblemen,  and  eight- 
een pages  of  gentle  birth  officiated  regularly  In  his  family.  .  .  .  Such, 
then,  at  the  beginning  of  I'yjo,  was  William  of  Orange,  a  generous, 
stately,  magnificent,  powerful  grandee."— /<!.  I,  2;»-245. 
Hist.— 20. 


CHAPTER   VI. 


THF    STUARTS    IN    ENGLAND. 


Engli 


sh   Costumes,  XVII 
Century. 


PON  the  death  of  Elizabeth  (§  510) 
the  croAvns  of  England  and  Scot- 
land were  united  in  James  Stuart, 
a  great  grandson  of  Henry  VII. 
(see  Table,  p.  223),  though  the 
two  countries  had  still  their  sepa- 
rate parliaments.  James  I.  (A.  D. 
1603- 1625)  brought  a  new  idea 
of  royalty  into  England,  namely, 
that  of  his  "divine  right"  as  the 
"Lord's  Anointed"  to  overrule  all 
laws.  He  told  the  House  of  Com- 
mons that  it  existed  by  the  gracious 
permission  of  his  ancestors,  and 
would  continue  to  exist  only  so 
long  as  it  suited  him.  The  king's 
slovenly,  slouching  person  and  un- 
dignified manners  made  a  curious 
contrast  to  these  high  pretensions. 


527.  James  hated  the  Puritans,  now  a  large  party  in  the 
English  Church,  who  desired  some  further  reforms  in  the 
ritual;  and  he  offended  them  by  his  "Book  of  Sports,"  in 
which  he  recommended  public  amusements  on  the  Lord's 
day.  Finding  that  they  could  expect  no  favor,  nor  even 
justice  at  home,  several  congregations,  now  deciding  to 
(306} 


RE/GN   OF  JAMES  I.  307 

quit  the  established  Church,  took  refuge  in  Holland.     We 
owe    to    King   James,     however,    the  accepted 
Protestant    version    of    the    Bible,*    which     was 
made  by   a  commission   of  learned  men   at  his  command. 

528.  Several  conspiracies  disturbed  the  early  years  of 
this  reign.  One  was  the  **  Gunpowder  Plot"  of  the  discon- 
tented Romanists,  to  blow  up  the  Parliament  houses  when 
all  the  members  were  assembled  to  hear  the  king's  speech. 
It  was  detected  in  time,  and  Guy  Fawkes,  a  paid  agent 
of  the  conspirators,  was  put  to  death.  In  another  and  less 
atrocious  plot,  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  was  accused  of  having 
part.  He  was  thrown  into  the  Tower,  where  he  beguiled 
twelve  gloomy  years  of  imprisonment  by  writing  his  His- 
tory of  the  World.  Then,  without  removing  his  sentence, 
the  king  sent  him  to  lead  a  perilous  attack  upon  Guiana, 
where  Raleigh  lost  his  son  and  all  his  fortune,  and  re- 
turned only  to  lay  his  head  upon  the  block.  *"Tis  a 
sharp  medicine,"  said  he,  with  a  smile,  as  he  passed  his 
finger  along  the  executioner's  axe,  **but  it  is  a  cure  for 
all  ills." 

529.  The  reign  of  James  is  more  honorably  noted  as  an 
era  of  colonization.  Thousands  of  Scottish  settlers  estab- 
lished their  linen-making  and  other  industries  in  the  north 
of  Ireland,  which  had  been  laid  waste  by  Tyrone's  Rebel- 
lion. The  East  India  Company,  which  had  received  its 
first  charter  from  Elizabeth,  set  up  a  factory  at  Surat,  in 
Hindustan.  The  earliest  English  town  within  the  present 
limits    of    the    United    States    bore    the    king's 

name.      At    first    idle    adventurers    flocked    to  •  »   7- 

Jamestown,  expecting  to  find  gold  without  labor,  and  they 
were  nearly  cut  off  by  famine;  but  the  energy  and  good 
sense  of  Captain  John  Smith  brought  about  a  better  state 
of  affairs.  A  different  sort  of  adventurers  landed,  in  1620, 
on  the  sandy  coast  of  Plymouth  Bay.  They  Were  the 
refugees    from    Holland    (§527),    who    had    now    resolved 


3o8  MODERN  HISTORY. 

to  found  a  new  state,  where  they  could  bring  up  their 
children  in  the  language  and  customs  of  their  native  land, 
w^hile  enjoying  a  freedom  of  worship  which  England  would 
not   afford. 

530.  Europe  was  now  trembling  with  the  first  shock 
of  the  Thirty  Years'  War.  Frederic,  elector-palatine,  had 
married  the  English  princess,  Elizabeth,  and  looked  to  her 
father  for  aid  in  his  resistance  to  the  Austrian  power 
(§§  564,  566).  But  James  seemed  not  even  to  understand 
the  policy  of  his  great  predecessor,  which  made  England 
the  head  of  Protestant  interests  in  Europe.  He  allowed 
Frederic  to  be  driven,  not  only  from  his  new  kingdom  of 
Bohemia,  but  from  the  home  of  his  fathers;  and  Elizabeth, 
with  her  children,  had  to  beg  for  shelter  at  foreign  courts. 
James,  meanwhile,  was  sacrificing  his  own  dignity  and  the 
interests  of  his  people  for  the  sake  of  a  Spanish  marriage^ 
for  his  son,  which,  after  all,  was  refused  him.  Charles 
married  a  Bourbon  princess,  Henrietta  Maria,  sister  of 
Louis   XHI. 

531.  Charles  I.  (A.  D.  1625- 1649)  began  his  reign, 
without  money,  on  the  eve  of  war  with  Spain.  The  Com- 
mons distrusted  him,  and  would  grant  supplies  only  for  a 
year  at  a  time.  Charles  thereupon  dismissed  them,  and 
tried  to  raise  money  by  forced  loans  and  arbitrary  taxes; 
but  these  unlawful  proceedings  offended  the  people  more 
than  they  helped  the  king.  His  war  resulted  in  failure; 
but  he  was  soon  led  by  his  favorite  Buckingham  to  aid 
the  Huguenots  of  Rochelle  against  the  armies  of  Louis 
XHL  This,  too,  failed,  and  Buckingham  was  assassinated 
while  preparing  for  a  new  attempt. 

532.  In  his  domestic  relations,  Charles  was  worthy  of  all 
respect;  but,  in  his  acts  as  a  king,  he  added  his  father's 
arbitrary  temper  to  that  falsity  of  character  which  had  cost 
his  grandmother  her  crown  and  her  life  (§  505).  The 
Parliament  of  1628  demanded  his  assent  to  a  Petition  of 


THE  LONG  PARLIAMENT.  309 

Rights,  before  it  would  take  up  the  question  of  supplies. 
The  king  signed  this  **  second  great  charter  of  English 
Freedom"  (j^  Z^l),  l)ut  he  violated  it  almost  as  soon  as 
the  Parliament  had  dispersed,  by  levying  '*  ship-money " 
on  his  own  authority. 

533.  John  Hampden,**  a  wealthy  gentleman  who  had  been 
twice  a  member  of  Parliament,  refused  to  pay  this  tax,  that 
he  might  bring  the  matter  to  a  test  before  the  courts. 
Seven  of  the  twelve  judges  decided  against  him,  because 
they  dared  not  displease  the  king;  but  his  bold  resistance 
was  an  example  and  encouragement  to  the  nation. 

534.  Thomas  Wentworth,  earl  of  Strafford,  who  had  at 
first  resisted  the  king's  demands,  deserted  the  cause  of 
the  people  and  became  a  chief  agent  in  oppression.  Arch- 
bishop Laud  carried  the  same  spirit  into  matters  of  relig- 
ion, by  restoring  some  ancient  usages  in  worship  which 
the  mass  of  the  nation  regarded  as  idolatrous.  The  king 
wished  to  impose  the  same  ritual  upon  Scotland,  but  here 
he  met  a  sturdy  resistance.  The  famous  Cove- 
nant, signed  partly  with  the  blood  of  the  writers,  '  ^  ^ 
bound  the  whole  Scottish  people  to  oppose  all  ' '  errors  and 
corruptions"  contrary  to  the  reformed   faith. 

535.  In  1640,  an  army  of  the  ''Covenanters"  invaded 
England,  and  threatened  York,  where  the  king  was  resid- 
ing. Charles  was  now  compelled  to  summon  the  "Long 
Parliament,"  so  called  because  it  continued  its  sessions 
thirteen  years.  Before  it  would  grant  money,  it  impeached 
Strafford  and  Laud,  abolished  the  Courts  of  Star  Chamber 
and  High  Commission,  which  had  become  infamously  cor- 
rupt, and  ordered  to  trial  all  the  tools  of  the  king's  oppres- 
sions. Strafford  was  beheaded;  and  Laud,  after  four  years' 
imprisonment,  suffered  the  same  fate. 

536.  A  fierce  rebellion  broke  out  in  Ireland,  in  October, 
1 64 1.      The   Scotch   colonists  (§  529)  were  massacred  or 


3IO 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


driven  from  their  homes,  and  only  Dublin  remained  subject 
to  the  English.  A  rash  attempt  of  the  king  to  arrest  five 
members  of  Parliament  now  plunged  England  into  civil 
war.  London  and  the  great  cities,  with  the  Puritans,  were 
generally  on  the  side  of  Parliament;  while  the  nobles  and 
clergy  and  all  the  young  cavaliers,  who  loved  a  gay  life 
and  hated  Puritan  strictness,  took  part  with  the  king. 

537.  Charles'  cavalry  was  led  by  his  nephew,  Prince 
Rupert,  son  of  that  German  elector  who  had  tried  to  be 
king  of  Bohemia.  In  1644,  Parliament  allied  itself  with 
the  Scots,  who  sent  an  army  to  besiege  York.  In  a  furi- 
ous battle  on  Marston  Moor,  Prince  Rupert  and  the  royal 
forces  were  defeated,  and  the  next  year  Fairfax  and  Crom- 
well,^ the  parliamentary  generals,  gained  a  still  more  de- 
cisive victory  over  the  king's  army  at  Naseby. 

538.  Charles  at  length  took  refuge  with  the  Scots,  but 
he  refused  to  sign  the  Covenant,  and  was  therefore  sur- 
rendered to  the  English  Parliament.  He  was  treated  with 
respect,  but  all  attempts  at  agreement  came  to  naught. 
Charles  would  abate  nothing  of  his  "divine  rights,"  while 
his  opponents  stood  firmly  for  the  liberties  of  the  people. 
At  length  a  court  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  judges  was 
appointed  to  try  Charles  Stuart  for  treason  in  having 
levied  war  against  the  Parliament.  He  was  condemned, 
and,  notwithstanding  the  protest  of  the  Scots,  was  beheaded 
at  Whitehall,  January  30,   1649. 

539.  The  Commonwealth. — The  English  Commons 
proceeded  to  abolish  monarchy  and  all  titles  of  nobility, 
and  to  proclaim  the  Commonwealth  (A.  D,  1649- 1660). 
The  Scots  crowned  Charles  the  Second  as  their  king,  upon 
his  signing  the  Covenant  and  declaring  himself  humbled 
and  grieved  in  spirit  for  the  sins  of  his  father.  Charles 
afterwards  exacted  a  bitter  revenge  for  the  hypocrisy  he 
had  been  made  to  practice.  Cromwell  and  his  "Ironsides" 
first  subdued   the   Irish  rebellion   (§   536),   then  gained  a 


CA»  OMIVJ  ( )  TECTOR.  3 1 1 

great  victory  over  the  Scots  at  Dunbar  and  captured  Edin- 
burgh and  Leith.  Charles  seized  the  opportunity  to  slip 
into  England,  hoping  that  many  royalists  would  join  him, 
but  he  was  disappointed,  and  so  thoroughly  de- 
feated at  Worcester  that  he  had  to  take  refuge  *  *  '  ^*' 
beyond  the  sea;  while  Scotland,  Ireland,  and  the  American 
colonies  submitted  to  the  Commonwealth. 

540.  Parliamciu  soon  provoked  a  war  with  the  lui-li- 
boring  republic  of  Holland,  England's  maritime  rival. 
The  English  admiral  Blake  and  the  Dutch  Van  Tromp 
fought  many  obstinate  battles,  after  one  of  which  Van 
Tromp  tied  a  broom  to  his  masthead  and  sailed  triumph- 
andy  up  and  down  the  channel,  showing  his  determina- 
tion to  sweep  the  English  from  the  seas.  The  war  closed, 
however,  with  reverses  to  the  Dutch,  who  consented  to 
lower  their  flags  whenever  they  met  an  English  vessel. 

541.  The  Long  Parliament  had  now  become  an  in- 
sufferable despotism,  but  there  was  no  power  that  could 
legally  dissolve  it.  Cromwell  undertook  to  do  this  by 
military  force.  Repairing  to  Westminster  with  a  guard 
of  soldiers,  he  reproached  the  members  with  their  tyranny, 
ambition,  and  robbery  of  the  people,  and  ended  by  crying 
out:  "For  shame!  Get  you  gone!  Give  place  to  hon- 
ester  men !  You  are  no  longer  a  parliament !  "  His  sol- 
diers cleared  the  hall  and  locked  the  doors.  He  then 
summoned  a  new  Parliament,  in  which,  for  the 

first  time,   the  representatives  of  Scotland  and 
Ireland  sat  with  those  of  England.     This  Parliament  con- 
ferred sovereign  power  upon  Cromwell,   with  the  tide  of 
Lord   Protector  for  life. 

542.  England  now  regained  the  respect  which  she  had 
lost  under  the  vacillating  rule  of  the  Stuarts.  Cromwell 
demanded  justice  for  the  persecuted  Vaudois  as  a  condi- 
tion of  his  alliance  with  PVance  against  Spain.  From  the 
latter  he  wrested   the  rich  island  of  Jamaica,  and  the  im- 


312  MODERN  HISTORY. 


portant  harbor  and  fortress  of  Dunkirk.  But  Cromwell 
bitterly  felt  that  his  power  was  usurped  and  despotic. 
Some  of  his  acts  were  more  arbitrary  than  those  for  which 
Charles  was  beheaded.  He,  too,  had  levied  taxes  without 
consent  of  Parliament,  and  had  imprisoned  lawyers  who 
appeared  in  defense  of  the  victims. 

543.  Assassins,  paid  by  Charles  II.,  constantly  dogged 
his  steps;  the  reproaches  of  his  conscience,  deepened,  it 
is  said,  by  those  of  his  dying  daughter,  harassed  his  mind. 
A  slow  fever  consumed  him,  and  he  died,  on  the  anni- 
versary of  his  great  victories  of  Dunbar  and  Worcester, 
September  3,  1658.  His  son  Richard,  though  acknowl- 
edged as  Protector,  found  himself  unequal  to  the  office, 
and  resigned  his  place.  No  one  was  great  enough,  though 
several  men  were  quite  willing,  to  be  intrusted  with  the 
government,  and  the  dread  of  anarchy  led  the  nation  to 
welcome  Charles  II.  as  their  king. 

544.  The  Restoration. — Charles  II.  (A.  D.  1660- 
1685)  entered  London  amid  the  clang  of  bells,  the  blaze 
of  bonfires,  and  the  shouts  of  a  rejoicing  people.  He 
began  his  reign  with  amnesty  to  all  political  offenders, 
except  a  few  who  had  been  actively  concerned  in  his 
father's  death.  The  church  w^as  restored  to  the  authority 
it  had  enjoyed  under  James  I.,  and  2,000  dissenting  min- 
isters were  expelled  from  their  parishes.  Greater  severi- 
ties were  inflicted  upon  the  Scots,  who  chose  to  meet  for 
worship  in  lonely  recesses  of  mountain  and  moor,  rather 
than  be  false  to  their  covenant.  These  congregations 
were  often  ridden  down  by  the  king's  troopers,  and  men, 
women,  and  children  were  put  to  the  sword. 

545.  In  1664,  a  new  war  broke  out  with  the  Dutch, 
who  lost  their  American  province  between  the  Hudson 
and  Delaware  rivers.  It  was  conferred  on  the  king's 
brother,  James,  duke  of  York,  and  the  northern  part  has 
ever   since    borne    his    title.       During    this   war   two   great 


REIGN  OF  CHARLES  IL  313 

calamities  visited  London — the  Plague,  in  1665,  which  de- 
stroyed 100,000  lives,  and  the  great  fire,  in  1666,  which 
consumed  13,000  dwellings  and  90  churches. 

546.  Charles,  by  this  time,  had  disgusted  his  best  friends 
by  the  shameful  licentiousness  of  his  court.  He  dismissed 
his  faithful  chancellor,  Lord  Clarendon,  who  reproved  his 
vices,  and  allowed  his  government  to  fall  into  the  hands 
of  unscrupulous  politicians.  He  married  a  Portuguese  prin- 
cess, Catharine  of  Braganza;  but  he  treated  her  with  rude 
neglect,  and  even  allowed  her  to  be  insulted  by  his  court- 
iers. He  sold  Dunkirk  to  the  French  to  raise  money  for 
his  idle  pleasures,  and  actually  accepted  a  pension  from 
Louis  XIV.,  to  betray  the  religion  and  the  independence 
of  England.  He  was,  however,  compelled  by  Parliament 
to  join  in  the  Triple  Alliance  (§  622)  to  restrain  the  aggres- 
sions of  his  too-powerful  cousin. 

547.  The  duke  of  York,  about  this  time,  declared  him- 
self a  Romanist,  and  the  king  was,  secretly,  of  the  same 
mind,  so  far  as  he  had  any  religion  at  all.  The  people, 
recalling  the  dangers  of  a  hundred  years  before  (§§  505- 
508),  were  ready  to  believe  the  false  stories  of 

one  Titus  Gates,  who  told  of  a  "popish  plot"  to  '  "  *  ^  ' 
kill  the  king  and  all  Protestants,  burn  London,  and  crown 
the  duke  of  York.  The  excitement  became  so  great,  and 
such  rewards  were  offered  for  further  evidence,  that  every 
day  brought  forth  a  swarm  of  new  stories,  each  more  atro- 
cious than  the  last.  But,  when  the  aged  and  estimable 
Lord  Stafford  was  actually  beheaded  for  supposed  com- 
plicity in  the  ''plot,"  remorse  and  grief  took  the  place  of 
credulity,  and  Gates  was  at  last  punished  as  he  deserved. 

548.  The  "Rye-House  Plot,"  A.  D.  1683,  was  a  real 
scheme  to  kill  the  king  and  his  brother  on  their  way  to  the 
Newmarket  races.  Its  authors  were  common  ruffians,  who 
were  easily  detected  and  punished.  Six  nobles  and  gentle- 
men were   at   the  same  time  jjlanning  some  change  in  the 


314  MODERN  HISTORY. 

government,  though  their  designs  did  not  probably  include 
either  treason  or  murder.  One  was  the  duke  of  Mon- 
mouth, a  son  of  the  king  and  a  low-born  woman;  another 
was  Algernon  Sidney,  a  noble-minded  republican  by  theory, 
who  had  opposed  the  absolute  power  of  Cromwell  as  well 
as  that  of  Charles.  Monmouth  ran  away,  but  was  after- 
wards pardoned  and  received  at  court;  Sidney  and  Lord 
Russell  were  tried,  condemned,  and  beheaded  on  unproven 
charges  of  having  had  part  in  the  Rye-House  Plot. 

549.  The  names  of  ''Whig"  and  ''Tory"  now  first 
appeared  in  England,  the  former  applied  to  the  party 
which  stood  for  the  rights  of  the  people;  the  latter,  to 
that  which  accepted  the  Stuart  notion  of  the  absolute 
authority  of  kings.  To  the  Whigs  we  owe  the  full  estab- 
lishment   of    the   Habeas    Corpus   Act,    entitling 

■  '  ^^'  every  prisoner  to  a  speedy  trial,  and  thus  pre- 
venting arbitrary  imprisonments.  This  guarantee  of  per- 
sonal freedom  is  found  in  every  nation  which  has  derived 
its  ideas  of  law  and  justice  from  England. 

550.  The  reign  of  Charles  II.  was  a  great  era  in 
science.  Newton^  discovered  the  law  of  gravitation ;  Boyle^ 
investigated  the  properties  of  the  atmosphere;  Hobbes  and 
Locke  discoursed  of  the  human  mind,  its  laws  and  rela- 
tions to  matter.  Meanwhile,  Milton,'^  in  blindness  and  pov- 
erty, was  composing  the  greatest  epic  poem  in  the  language 
—  Paradise  Lost.  He  had  been  secretary  to  Cromwell, 
and  devoted  his  splendid  talents  to  the  service  of  the 
Commonwealth.  He  was  treated  with  contemptuous  neg- 
lect by  the  courtiers  of  Charles,  but  later  ages  know  better 
how  to  appreciate  him.  John  Bunyan,  tinker  and  preacher, 
during  his  twelve  years'  imprisonment  in  Bedford  jail,  wrote 
the  "Pilgrim's  Progress,"  which  has  probably  had  more 
readers  than  any  other  English  book. 

551.  Charles  left  no  son  entitled  to  succeed  him,  and 
his  brother  James  (A.  D.   1685 -1688)  accordingly  became 


DETHRONEAfENT  Of  /AMES  //.  315 


king  upon  his  death.  Taking  advantage  of  the  popular 
fear  of  popery,  the  duke  of  Monmouth  made  a  rash  attempt 
to  seize  his  uncle's  crown.  With  his  Httle  army  he  met 
the  king's  forces  at  Sedgemoor,  where  he  was  defeated, 
made  a  prisoner,  and  condemned  to  the  scaffold.  A  brutal 
revenge  for  this  insurrection  was  taken  by  Kirke  with  his 
dragoons,  and  afterwards  by  Jeffreys,  the  drunken  chief 
justice,  who  condemned  innocent  and  guilty  alike. 

552.  The  king  soon  took  steps  for  the  restoration  of 
popery,  and  thrust  into  the  Tower  seven  venerable  bishops, 
who  had  ventured  to  remonstrate.  The  people  had  been 
patiently  waiting  for  the  king  to  die,  that  his  daughter, 
who  had  married  the  Prince  of  Orange — great  grandson 
of  the  liberator  of  the  Netherlands  (§§  514-521)  —  might 
come  to  the  throne.  The  birth  of  an  English  prince,  in 
1688,  disappointed  this  hope  and  hastened  the  Revolution. 

553-  William  of  Orange  was  the  leader  of  Protestant 
Europe  against  Louis  XIV.,  as  Elizabeth  had  been  against 
Philip  of  Spain.  The  best  men  in  England  now  joined  in 
inviting  him  to  come  and  deliver  them  from  misrule.  In 
November,  1688,  he  appeared  with  a  fleet  on  the  English 
coast,  and  both  parties  declared  for  him.  The  queen  and 
her  baby-son  escaped  to  France,  where  the  king  soon 
joined  them.  Louis  received  them  with  kindness,  main- 
tained a  court  for  them  and  their  needy  followers,  and  sup- 
plied  fleets  and  armies  to  enforce  their  claims  in  Ireland. 

554.    Parliament  conferred  the  crown  upon  William  and 
Mary  as  joint  sovereigns,  and  they  set  their  seal 
to  a  new  Bill  of  Rights,  which  established  just  .    " 

relations  between  the  people  and  the  throne.  The  Scotch 
Parliament  also  acknowledged  William  and  Mary,  but  in 
Ireland  an  immense  majority  held,  out  for  James,  and 
there  the  deposed  king  landed  with  a  French  force,  and 
besieged  Londonderry.  The  citizens  bravely  endured  a 
three  months'  siege,   though   hundreds  died  in  the  streets 


3i6  MODERN  HISTORY. 

from  hunger  and  disease,  and  at  length  James  had  to 
withdraw.  The  last  decisive  battle  was  on  the  River 
Boyne,  where  both  kings  were  present  in  person,  and 
William  was  completely  victorious.  The  last  of  James'  ad- 
herents, in  the  highlands  of  Scotland,  were  destroyed  in 
the  Massacre  of  Glencoe  —  a  wicked  and  needless  act,  for 
it  occurred  after  their  submission. 

555.  Queen  Mary  II.  died  in  1694,  and  William  III. 
reigned  eight  years  as  sole  monarch  of  the  three  king- 
doms. England  was  drawn  into  his  wars  on  the  continent, 
which,  for  the  first  time,  burdened  her  with  a  national 
debt.  By  the  peace  of  Ryswick,  1697,  the  king  of  France 
recognized  William  as  a  rightful  sovereign,  and  promised 
to  give  no  more  aid  to  the  exiled  Stuarts.  He  violated 
this  engagement,  however,  and,  on  the  death  of  James  II., 
proclaimed  his  son  as  "King  James  III.  of  England, 
Scotland,  and  Ireland."  The  English  nation  felt  itself 
insulted,  and,  in  voting  supplies  for  the  war  of  the  Spanish 
Succession  (§  628),  Parliament  begged  the  king  never  to 
make  peace  until  Louis  had  atoned  for  this  act.  While 
preparing  for  the  war,  William  suddenly  died,  March,  1702. 

556.  Anne,  second  daughter  of  James  II.,  was  crowned 
at  Westminster,  April  23,  and  joined  the  emperor  and  the 
Dutch  republic  in  a  grand  alliance  against  France  and 
Spain,  of  which  her  great  general,  the  duke  of  Marl- 
borough, was  the  moving  spirit.  The  details  of  the  war 
will  be  found  in  the  chapter  on  France.  In  1707,  Eng- 
land and  Scotland  became  one  kingdom,  under  the  name 
of  Great  Britain.  Ireland  kept  her  separate  parliament 
until  1800,  when  the  three  kingdoms  were  united. 

557.  Queen  Anne's  heart  was,  doubtless,  better  than 
her  head,  and  she  was  easily  controlled  by  those  who 
were  about  her.  The  duchess  of  Marlborough  ruled  her 
for  years  with  the  tyranny  which  a  strong  mind  sometimes 
exercises  over  a  weak   one,  scolding   the  poor  queen   un- 


ERA    OF   QCEEN  ANiVE.  yi 


mercifully  for  some  little  domestic  arrangement,  which  the 
humblest  woman  might  be  allowed  to  make  in  her  own 
house,  but  which  the  haughty  duchess  chose  to  manage 
herself.  At  last  she  was  dismissed  from  court,  and  her 
place  in  the  queen's  favor  was  taken  by  a  Mrs.  Masham. 
The  duke  was  too  justly  accused  of  prolonging  the  war  in 
order  to  make  himself  rich  with  army  contracts.  He  was 
removed  from  command,  and  soon  afterward  the  treaty  of 
Utrecht  restored  peace  to  Europe. 

558.  Queen  Anne  left  no  children,  and,  by  a  special 
act  of  Parliament,  the  House  of  Stuart  was  succeeded  by 
that  of  Hanover.  Perhaps  it  would  have  consoled  the 
Electress  Elizabeth  (§  530)  in  her  poverty  and  exile,  if 
she  could  have  foreseen  that  her  grandson  would  sit  upon 
the  throne  of  Great  Britain,  The  prevalence  of  French 
taste  may  be  clearly  marked  in  the  writers  of  Queen 
Anne's  time,  who  are  distinguished  for  neatness  and  polish 
of  style,  rather  than  for  great  thoughts  or  energetic  feel- 
ing. Pope  translated  Homer's  Iliad,  and  wrote  his  own 
moral  Essays  and  Epistles,  in  the  same  stiff  measure  and 
artificial  rhymes.  Addison  and  Steele,  two  charming  prose- 
writers,  produced  the  Tatlcr  and  afterwards  the  Spectator — 
forerunners  of  our  literary  weeklies  and  monthlies. 

Read  Green's  Short  History,  Chs.  VIII  and  IX. 

HOUSES   OF  STUART   AND   HANOVER. 
James  I. 


Charles  I.  Elizabeth  m    Elector- Palatine. 

,' \ 1  I 

Charles  II.    James  II.     Mary  m.  Pr.  of  Orange.     Sophia  m.  Elector  of  Hanover. 

Mary.    Anne.    James  Francis  (g  532).    William  III.    George  I. 

Notice  that  the  mother,  as  well  as  the  wife,  of  Willliam  III.  was 
an  English  princess,  and  that  he  was  himself  the  third  in  the  line  of 
succession  to  the  crown. 


3i8 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


NOTES. 

1.  In  the  course  of  two  centuries,  the  English  language  had  under- 
gone so  many  changes  that  Wicliffe's  Bible  (g391)  could  no  longer  be 
read  except  by  scholars.  The  foundation  for  all  the  modern  versions 
was  laid  by  William  Tyndale,  an  exile  for  his  belief  in  the  reformed 
doctrines,  who,  in  1525,  published  at  Antwerp  his  translation  of  the 
New  Testament.  Tyndale  was  afterwards  imprisoned  for  heresy,  and, 
in  1536,  was  strangled  and  burnt  at  the  stake.  His  books  were  burnt 
by  order  of  the  government,  but  his  work  formed  the  basis  of  Cover- 
dale's  translation  of  the  whole  Bible,  which  appeared  in  1535,  with  the 
sanction  of  Henry  VIII.  This  was  followed  by  the  "Great  Bible"  of 
1539-1541,  also  sanctioned  by  the  king;  and  by  the  "Bishops'  Bible"  of 
1568-1572,  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth.  Fifty-four  scholars  and  divines  wiere 
employed  upon  King  James's  translation,  and  tliese  were  divided  into 
six  "Companies,"  four  for  the  Old  Testament  and  two  for  the  New. 
Their  work  occupied  two  years  and  nine  months. 

In  June,  1870,  a  Revision  of  King  James's  Version  was  commenced 
by  two  English  Companies  appointed  by  the  Convocation  of  Canter- 
bury, who  afterwards  invited  two  Committees  in  America  to  co-operate 
with  them.  The  Revised  New  Testament  was  presented  to  the  public 
in  May,  1881. 

2.  The  "Spanish  Marriage"  scheme  was  met  in  England  with  the 
strongest  remonstrance  from  Parliament  and  all  the  king's  best  coun- 
cillors. It  was  promoted,  however,  by  the  Duke  of  Buckingham,  "a 
liandsome  young  adventurer,"  whom  James  had  "  raised  rapidly  through 
every  rank  of  the  peerage,  and  intrusted  witli  the  direction  of  English 
policy.  .  .  .  But  the  selfishness  and  recklessness  of  Buckingham  were 
equal  to  his  beauty,  and  the  haughty  young  favorite  was  destined  to 
d nig  down  in  liis  fatal  career  the  tlirone  of  the  Stuarts." 

James  flattered  himself  tliat  if  his  son  should  marry  a  Spanish  prin- 
cess, his  own  influence  with  the  Spanish  court  would  secure  some  pro- 
tection to  his  daughter's  interests  in  Germany,  and  he  preferred  this 
crooked  policy  to  a  direct  use  of  his  own  power,  in  which  the  Commons 
would  most  heartily  have  sustained  him.  But  Frederic,  driven  from  Bo- 
hemia, found  a  Spanish  army  encamped  in  the  heart  of  his  hereditary 
dominions,  and  was  subsequently  forced  to  take  refuge  in  Holland. 
Prince  Cliarles,  who  was  then  in  Spain,  urging  his  own  suit,  demanded 
Spanish  interference  in  his  sister's  behalf;  but  was  answered  that  there 
was  an  unalterable  maxim  of  state  that  the  King  of  Spain  must  never 
flght  against  the  Emperor.  "  If  you  hold  to  that,"  replied  the  Prince, 
"there  is  an  end  of  all;  "  and  he  not  unwillingly  returned  to  England. 

3.  When  only  three  years  old,  Hampden  was  left  fatherless  and  heir 
to  one  of  the  largest  estates  in  England.  Educated  at  Oxford,  he  after- 
wards studied  law  in  London,  and  entered  the  House  of  Commons  in 
1621. 

To  the  flrst  illegal  demand  of  Charles  I.  for  a  loan,  "Hampden  replied 
that  he  'could  be  content  to  lend,  but  feared  to  draw  upon  himself  the 
curse  in  Magna  Charta  (§383),  which  should  be  read  every  year  against 
those  who  infringe  it.'  He  was  punished  by  so  hard  an  imprisonment 
that  he  never  afterwards  did  look  like  the  same  man  he  was  before." 

The  levying  of  ship-money  dated  from  Alfred  the  Great  (§329  and 
notes),  who  had  required  each  maritime  town  to  provide  and  maintain 
a  ship  for  the  defense  of  the  coast.  But  this  was  done  only  with  the  advice 
and  consent  of  his  "wise  men."  Hampden's  firm  and  reasonable  resist- 
ance encouraged  all  true  patriots  •  and  even  the  Earl  of  Clarendon  (§546) 
remarks  in  his  'History  of  the  Civil  Wars,"  that  Hampden  "grew  the 
argument  of  all  tongues,  every  man  inquiring  who  and  w^hat  he  was, 
that  durst,  at  his  own  charge,  support  the  liberty  and  prosperity  of  the 
kingdom." 

Hampden  was  mortally  wounded  on  Chalgrove  Field,  1643. 

4.  Oliver  Cromwell  was  born  in  Huntingdonshire,  1599,  was  educated 
in  Cambridge,  and  studied  law  in  London.  He  was  a  cousin  of  Hamp- 
den. Although  over  forty  years  of  age  when  he  entered  the  army,  "he 
never  lost  a  battle,  and  his  victories  were  always  decisive." 


NOTES,  319 


With  the  consent  of  Fairfax,  tho  commnndcrln-chlcf,  Cromwell  In- 
irmliHvtl  u  "New  Model"  of  (Uscii)line  Into  tho  I'urllainontAry  nrmicn. 
Ills  first  aim  was  to  colloct  a  IxHly  of  honest,  self-respeetinKi  onil  (UkI- 
learlnsi  men,  and  never,  i)rohal)l.v,  was  sneh  another  army  seen.  Wher- 
ever they  moved,  every  mttn's  house  and  Held  were  respected,  and  pro- 
visions were  honestly  paid  for,  while  the  wild  nuirauders  who  followed 
Trinee  Kii|)ert,  Jin«l  manv  of  whom  had  learned  their  trade  anionK  tho 
lUdeous  mvajjes  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  hurt  the  Kinx's  cause  more 
l>y  tlu'lr  tlisjtra«'eful   mlseonduet  than  tlu-y   helpe<l  it    hy   their  hravery. 

The  events  of  Crom well's  life  are  hriefly  noted  in  the  text.  Hisehnr- 
aeter  should  hestudieil  In  I'arlyle's  "  Letters  and  Speeches  of  Cromwell, " 
in  "Macnulay's  Review  of  Hallam's  Constitutional  History  of  Knulnnd," 
and  in  "Forster's  St4ite8men  of  the  Commonwealth  of  England." 

5.  Sir  Isaac  Newton  was  a  farmer's  son,  born  In  Lincolnshire,  1»12. 
In  his  l)ovhood  he  proved  his  iuKenulty  by  constructing  a  wind-mill, 
a  water-cloclv,  and  other  pieces  of  mechanism.  While  a  student  at  Cam- 
bridge, lie  discovered  the  binomial  theorem  In  Algebra,  and  s(M)n  after- 
ward the  dillerential  calculus.  In  his  retirement  to  tlie  country  during 
the  (Jreat  Plague  (g'vl.j),  the  fall  of  an  apple  from  a  tree  led  him  Into  u 
train  «)f  reasoning  which  ended  in  a  demonstration  of  the  law  that  holds 
the  Inlands  in  their  orbits.  It  was  "the  germ  of  his  greatest  work,  the 
'Principia,'  which  La  Place  regarded  as  'pre-eminent  above  all  other 
l>roductions  of  the  hunuui  intellect.'"  Among  his  other  discoveries  was 
iiis  theory  explaining  that  which  Sir  John  Herschel  calls  "the  chief 
of  all  oi>tical  facts— the  production  of  colors  in  the  ordinary  lefraction 
of  light  by  a  prism."  Read  the  accounts  of  Newton  in  the  "  Encyclopfie- 
dia  Hritannica,"  or  in  "LIppincott's  Hiograjibical  Dictionary,"  also  "Sir 
David  Brewster's  Memoira  of  Sir  Isaac  Kewlyn." 

6.  Robert  Boyle,  a  younger  son  of  the  "great  Earl  of  Cork,"  was  born 
at  Lismore,  in  Ireland,  1626.  This  was  the  year  of  Lord  Bacon's  death, 
and,  as  if  destined  to  succeed  him,  Boyle  is  "accounted  the  most  zealous 
and  successful  "  of  Bacon's  disciples.  After  a  liberal  education,  followed 
by  travels  in  Italy,  Boyle  returned  to  England,  and  became  one  of  the 
fonndere  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Science.  The  most  note<l  of  the  prac- 
tical results  of  his  studies  and  experiments  was  the  perfecting  or  the 
air-pump.  He  is  entitled  to  admiration  as  well  by  the  noble  liberality 
of  his  character  as  by  his  splendid  contributions  to  science. 

7.  John  Milton  was  born  in  London,  1608.  After  seven  years  at  the 
University  of  Cambridge,  he  spent  five  years  in  rural  quietness,  study- 
ing music  and  the  classical  writers,  and  composing  the  most  beautiful 
of  his  poems;  "Comus,"  "  L'Allegro,"  "II  Penseroso,"  and  "  Lycidas." 
He  afterwards  traveled  in  Italy,  visited  Galileo  in  his  prison,  and  en- 
joyed the  society  of  many  great  men.  "  When  I  was  preparing,"  he  says, 
"to  jiass  over  into  Sicily  and  Greece,  the  melancholy  Intelligence  which 
I  received  of  the  civil  commotions  in  England  made  me  alter  my  pur- 
jiose;  fori  thought  it  base  to  ])e  traveling  for  amusement  abroad  while 
my  fellow-citizens  were  fighting  for  liberty  at  home." 

Taking  up  his  residence  in  l^ondon,  Milton  soon  afterwards  married 
Mary  Powell,  a  lady  of  royalist  family.  Being  accustomed  to  much 
gay  societ}',  Mrs.  Milton  found  her  husband's  house  so  dull  that  she 
soon  returned  to  her  early  home,  and,  .is  her  father  had  begun  to  repent 
"having  matche<l  his  eldest  daughter  to  a  person  so  contrary  in  opin- 
ion," Milton's  letters  and  attempts  at  reconciliation  were  treated  with 
contempt.  Finding,  however,  that  he  was  about  to  cast  her  ofT  Irre- 
trievably for  disobedience  and  desertion,  the  now  repentant  wife  begged 
to  be  taken  back.  The  reconciliation  was  perfect,  and  Mrs.  Milton's 
kindred  had  reason  to  rejoice  in  it,  for  they  soon  needed  a  refuge  un- 
der the  protection  of  the  now  powerful  republican. 

As  "literary  champion  of  the  Commonwealth,"  Milton  was  called 
upon  to  answer  the  arguments  of  its  opponents.  His  "Defense  of  the 
English  People"  cost  him  his  sight.  He  was  warned  of  the  danger,  but 
says,  "I  did  not  balance  whether  my  duty  should  he  preferred  to  my 
eyes."  Thus  it  was  in  total  darkness  that  he  composed  his  greatest 
poem, "  Paradise  l/ost,"  and  another  epic,  second  only  to  it,  the  "  Paradise 
Regained."  He  died  in  1674.  Prof.  Masson's  great  work  on  the  "Life 
and  Times  of  Milton  "  Is  the  highest  authority  on  the  subject. 


CHAPTER   VII. 


THE    HOUSE    OF  AUSTRIA  AND    THE    THIRTY  YEARS'   WAR. 


PON    the   abdication    of   Charles 
v.,   the   Hapsbiirgs  \vere    sepa- 
rated   into    a    Spanish    and    a 
German     branch  —  his    brother 
Ferdinand  becoming  duke  of 
Austria    and    emperor,    while 
Philip    reigned    over    Spain, 
Italy,    and    the    Netherlands. 
Still  the  two  branches  usually 
acted  in  concert,  and  together 
continued   to   be   the    leading 
power  in  Europe. 

560.  The  main  interest  of 
Ferdinand's  reign  (A.  D.  1558 
-1564),  and  that  of  his  son, 
centers  about  the  wars  with 
the  Turks,  who  now  exacted 
a  yearly  tribute  from  the  em- 
peror, and  were  fighting  for 
the  control  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean. In  1565,  Solyman 
(§§460-467)  besieged  Malta^with  an  immense  fleet  and 
army;  but  the  Knights  of  St.  John  defended  it  so  bravely 
that  he  abandoned  the  enterprise  and  sailed  away  to  Con- 
stantinople in  a  rage.  Five  years  later,  the  whole  island 
of  Cyprus,  for  eighty  years  a  possession  of  Venice,  was 
conquered  by  the  Turks,  and  all  Europe  was  alarmed. 
(320) 


An  Arquebusier. 


MAP  No.  XII. 


CHIEF   ENGLISH    WRITERS 

OF   THE  COMMONWEALTH,    THE   RESTORATION.   AND 
QUEEN    ANNE'S    REIGN. 


Thomas  Fuller,  A.  D.  1608-1661  :   "Worthies  of  England," 

etc. 
Jeremy  Taylor,  1613-1667:  **The  Liberty  of  Prophesying,'" 

etc. 
Abraham  Cowley,  1618-1667  :  Poems. 
John  Milton,  1608-1674:  "Paradise  Lost,"  etc. 
Edward  Hyde,   Earl  of  Clarendon,    1608-1674:    "History 

of  the  Rebellion,"  etc. 
Samuel  Butler,  1612-1680:   "Hudibras." 
Sir  Thomas  Browne,  1605- 1682  :  "  Religio  Medici,"  etc. 
Edmund  Waller,  [605-1687  :  Poems. 
Ralph  Cudworth,    1617-1688:    "True   Intellectual  System 

of  the  Universe,"  etc. 
John  Bunyan,  1628-1688:  "The  Pilgrim's  Progress.' 
Richard  Baxter,  1615-1691  :   "The  Saints'  Rest,"  etc. 
John  Dryden,  1631-1700:  "Absalom  and  Achitophel,"  etc. 
John  Locke,  1632-1704:    "Essay  concerning  Human  Un- 
derstanding." 
Gilbert  Burnet,  1 643-1 7 15  :   "  History  of  the  Reformation," 

etc. 
Joseph  Addison,  1672-17 19:  "Cato,"  "The  Spectator,"  etc. 
Sir  Isaac  Newton,  1642-1727  :  "Mathematical  Principles," 

"Optics,"  etc. 
Sir  Richard  Steele,  1671-1729:  Comedies,  "The  Tatler," etc. 
Daniel  DeFoe,  1661-1731  :   "  Robinson  Crusoe,"  etc. 
Alexander  Pope,  1688-1744:  "Essay  on  Criticism,"   "The 

Dunciad,"  etc. 
Jonathan  Swift,  1 667-1 745  :   "Gulliver's  Travels,"  etc. 


BATTLE  OF  LEPANTO.  321 

561.  A  tlcet  of  300  Spanisli  and  Venetian  vessels  were 
soon  assembled  under  the  command  of  John  of  Austria, 
a  half-brother  of  the  king  of  Spain,  and  met  the  Turkish 
armament  in  the  Gulf  of  Lepanto*(see  Map  4). 

_,,  .  ,  1  1  •  Oct.,  1571. 

The  ensuing  combat  was  perhaps  the  most  mi- 
portant  naval  battle  of  modern  times;  for  it  was  the  |X)int 
where  the  Ottoman  Empire,  having  reached  its  greatest 
power,  began  steadily  to  decline.  The  Turks  lost  224 
ships,  and  30,000  men.  The  great  Solyman  had  died  in 
1566,  and  his  son  Se'lim,  who  reigned  till  1574,  was  weak 
and  self-indulgent. 

562.  Ferdinand's  son  and  successor,  Maximil'ian  II. 
(A.  D.  1564- 1576),  was  one  of  the  best  monarchs  of  the 
age.  He  gave  religious  liberty  to  his  own  dominions  of 
Hungary  and  Bohemia,  and  steadily  opposed  the  Jesuits, 
though  his  wife,  a  sister  of  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  was  willingly 
ruled  by  them.  His  son,  Ru'dolph  II.  (A.  D.  1576- 1612), 
on  the  contrary,  expelled  all  Lutherans  from  his  hereditary 
states.  The  laws  of  the  empire  did  not  permit  persecution 
in  Germany,  but  the  bigotry  of  Rudolph  prepared  the  way 
for  the  most  terrible  war  of  religion  on  record.  He  was 
a  weak-minded  and  superstitious  man;  but  his  belief  in  the 
magical  influences  of  the  stars  was  of  some  use,  for  it  led 
him  to  endow  an  observatory  at  Prague,  where  the  great 
astronomers,  Kepler*and  Tycho  Brahe,^  pursued  their  studies 
of  the  heavens. 

563.  Europe  was  again  alarmed  by  the  progress  of  the 
Turks  under  Moham'med  III.,  a  monster  who  had  secured 
his  possession  of  the  throne  by  murdering  his  nineteen 
brothers.      In  a  three  days'  battle  at  Keresztes, 

fifty  thousand  Christians  were  slain ;  but  the  war  '  '^   ' 

resulted  unfavorably  to  the  Turks,  and  the  treaty  which 
ended  it  dispensed  with  any  further  tribute  from  the  em- 
perors, who  were  now  named  by  their  proper  titles  instead 
of  being  called  "Kings  of  Vienna"  as  before. 

Hist.— 21. 


322  MODERN  HISTORY. 

564.  The  long  weak  reign  of  Rudolph  ended  in  16 12, 
and  his  brother  Matthi'as  became  emperor;  but  the  crowns 
of  Hungary  and  Bohemia  were  soon  resigned  to  Ferdinand 
of  Styria,  their  cousin.  The  Bohemians  revolted  against 
Ferdinand,  threw  his  council  out  of  the  window  of  the 
castle  at  Prague,  and  ultimately  chose  Frederic,  the  elector- 
palatine,  a  son-in-law  of  James  I.  of  England,  to  be  their 
king.  This  was  the  first  act  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  in 
which  almost  every  nation  in  Europe  was  engaged,  though 
Germany  was  the  chief  sufferer. 

565.  The  old  enmity  between  the  reigning  houses  of 
France  and  Austria  led  the  former  to  take  an  important, 
though  at  first  a  secret,  part  in  the  war.  Richelieu's  shrewd 
management  strengthened  the  Protestant  cause,  and  aided 
the  king  of  Sweden,  who  soon  appeared  as  its  champion. 
Wal'lenstein,'^  the  imperial  general,  was  the  most  singular 
character  of  his  time.  He  believed  that  a  great  destiny 
was  written  for  him  in  the  stars;  and  his  soldiers  followed 
him  with  the  blindest  obedience  and  confidence,  as  if  all 
the  forces  of  heaven  and  earth  were  on  his  side.  The 
magic  of  his  name  drew  about  him  50,000  volunteers, 
whom  he  maintained,  without  expense  to  the  emperor,  by 
turning  them  loose  upon  the  unhappy  people,  whose  homes 
and  fields  they  ravaged. 

566.  King  Frederic  was  not  only  driven  from  Bohemia 
by  Ferdinand's  troops,  but  lost  his  dominion  on  the  Rhine, 
and  ended  his  life  in  exile  and  poverty.  Ferdinand,  on  the 
death  of  his  cousin  Matthias  in  1619,  received  the  imperial 
crown.  The  first  years  of  the  war  favored  the  imperialists. 
Wallenstein  and  his  freebooters  swept  over  the  Protestant 
states,  leaving  a  broad  track  of  misery  and  desolation  be- 
hind them.  The  king  of  Denmark,  who  came  to  the  aid 
of  the  Protestants,  was  driven  back  even  to  his  islands  in 
the  Baltic — his  dominions  on  the  mainland  being  occupied 
by   the    emperor's  forces.      With    the    aid   of   the   king   of 


GUSTAVUS  ADOLPHUS,  323 

Sweden,  he  was  able,  however,  to  relieve  the  fortress  of 
Stralsund,  before  whose  walls  Wallenstein  lost  nearly  half 
his  army.  Soon  afterward  the  Diet  insisted  upon  the  dis- 
missal of  Wallenstein  for  his  brutal  tyrannies  and  extor- 
tions, and  Count  Tilly  was  appointed  as  his  successor. 

567.  In  1630,  (lustavus  Adolphus,' king  of  Sweden,  in- 
vaded Germany.  His  army,  unlike  that  of  Wallenstein, 
respected  all  the  rights  of  the  people,  paying  honesdy  for 
whatever  food  it  required.  One  by  one  all  the  fortresses 
of  Pomerania  and  Mecklenburg  were  either  taken,  or  will- 
ingly surrendered  to  the  Swedish  king.  The  electors  of 
Saxony  and  Brandenburg,  descendants  of  the  great  leaders 
of  the  Reformation,  were  neither  able  to  fill  their  place  at 
the  head  of  Protestant  Germany,  nor  willing  that  any  other 
should  fill  it.  Angry  because  the  people  looked  to  Gus- 
tavus  as  their  great  deliverer,  they  refused  him  their  aid, 
and  even  resisted  his  progress,  so  that  he  was  compelled 
to  leave  the  ancient  city  of  Magdeburg  to  the  vengeance  of 
Count  Tilly  and  his  brutal  Croats  and  Walloons. 

Thirty  thousand  citizens  were  massacred,  and  the 

entire  city,  excepting  the  cathedral,  was  consumed  by  fire. 

568.  Tilly  then  ravaged  and  plundered  Saxony;  and  the 
smoke  of  two  hundred  burning  villages  at  length  made  the 
Elector  willing  to  join  his  forces  to  those  of  the  king  of 
Sweden.  The  great  victory  of  Leipsig  was  the  result,  in 
which  the  imperial  army  was  wholly  dispersed  or  de- 
stroyed. All  Germany  lay  open  to  Gustavus;  he  might, 
apparenUy,  have  marched  to  Vienna,  captured  the  emperor, 
and  received  for  himself  the  crown  of  the  Caesars.  The 
Austrian  courtiers  no  longer  laughed  at  the  "Snow-King," 
who,  at  his  head-quarters  in  Mentz,  on  the  Rhine,  was 
surrounded  by  a  brilliant  array  of  ambassadors  and  princes. 
Ferdinand  was  reluctantly  compelled  to  recall  Wallenstein, 
who,  with  haughty  insolence,  accepted  command  only  on 
the  condition  that  the  entire  military  power  of  the  empire 


324  MODERN  HISTORY. 

should  be  placed  in  his  hands,  and  that  neither  the  emperor 
nor  any  of  his  family  should  come  near  the  army. 

569.  The  last  victory  of  Gustavus  was  at  Lutzen,  where 

Wallenstein  and  his  troops  were  defeated,  but 
"  '  the  great  king  was  slain.  The  Spanish  and 
Austrian  governments  ordered  public  rejoicings  for  his 
death,  as  a  victory  to  their  cause;  but  the  rest  of  the 
world  mourned  the  loss  of  the  noblest  character  of  the 
time.  The  Protestant  states  of  Germany  chose  the  Swed- 
ish chancellor  Ox'enstiern^  to  succeed  his  master  as  the 
protector  of  their  interests,  while  Duke  Bernhard  of  Weimar 
became  their  military  chief. 

570.  It  was  soon  evident  that  Wallenstein  meant  to  make 
himself  king  of  Bohemia.  Instead  of  bringing  him  to  a 
just  and  open  trial  for  this  treason,  the  emperor  ordered  a 
secret  assassination,  and  the  foul  deed  was  performed  by 
some  of  Wallenstein's  own  officers.  King  Ferdinand  of 
Bohemia,  the  emperor's  eldest  son,  assumed  chief  command 
of  the  army,  and,  in  the  summer  of  1634,  inflicted  a  ruinous 
defeat  upon  the  Swedes  at  Nordlingen.  The  elector  of 
Saxony,  and  most  of  the  other  princes,  soon  made  peace 
with  Ferdinand;  and  the  imperial  armies  invaded  France, 
though  with  little  success. 

571.  In  1637  the  emperor  died,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  son  Ferdinand  III.,  a  more  liberal  and  peace-loving 
prince.  Yet  the  war  went  on,  and  its  last  years  were  more 
hideously  brutal  than  even  its  beginning.  The  Swedes  had 
lost  the  perfect  discipline  of  Gustavus  Adolphus,  while  the 
German  soldiers  lived  wholly  by  plundering  the  wretched 
people.  Hunger  was  the  great  weapon  constantly  em- 
ployed, each  army  destroying  all  the  food  it  could  not 
eat,  for  the  purpose  of  starving  its  opponents;  and,  of 
course,  women,  children,  and  helpless  men  suffered  more 
than  the  soldiers.  In  Bohemia  alone  more  than  a  thou- 
sand castles  and  villages  were  burned. 


TREATY  OF  WESTPHALIA.  325 

57a.  At  last  all  parties  were  suflRcicntly  worn  out  to 
unite  in  m  (..miest  effort  for  pern  r  I  wo  congresses  were 
opened  at  Miinster  and  Osnabnick,  one  for  the  Catholic 
and  one  for  the  Protestant  powers;  and,  after  five  years' 
labor  of  embassadors  from  nearly  all  nations  of  Europe, 
the  treaty  of  Westphalia  was  signed.  Spain 
recognized  the  United  Netherlands  after  eighty  *^*''  *  *  ' 
years'  struggle  as  an  independent  republic.  The  son  of 
Frederic  V.  was  restored  to  his  electorate  (^566).  Relig- 
ious freedom  was  guaranteed  to  all  the  German  states. 
Many  imperial  powers  were  now  bestowed  upon  the  Diet, 
which  was  hereafter  to  meet,  at  stated  intervals,  at  Frank- 
fort, instead  of  attending  the  emperor  whenever  and  where- 
ever  he  chose  to  call  it. 

573.  The  Holy  Roman  Empire  ceased  to  exist,  except 
in  name;  and  300  sovereign  and  separate  states,  each  with 
its  distinct  coinage,  constitution,  and  laws,  existed  between 
the  Alps  and  the  Baltic.  One  could  hardly  travel  a  day, 
even  in  the  slow  coaches  of  that  period,  without  paying 
duties  at  several  custom-houses,  wliich  marked  the  bound- 
aries of  as  many  governments.  The  peace  of  Westphalia 
was  an  important  turning  point  in  the  history  of  Europe  — 
ending  130  years  of  religious  strife,  and  marking  the  decline 
of  the  Spanish  and  Austrian  Hapsburgs.  A  few  years  later 
saw  an  immense  increase  in  the  power  of  France. 

Find  the  sites  of  all  the  sieges  and  battles  mentioned  in  this 
chapter.  Where  is  Westphalia?  Saxony?  Brandenburg?  Mecklen- 
burg? Pomerani£\?  Bohemia?  Point  out  the  separate  dominions 
of  the  two  branches  of  the  Hapsburgs. 

Read  Schiller's  "Thirty  Years'  War;"  Dyer's  History  of  Modern 
Europe;  and,  for  illustration  of  the  times,  Schiller's  three-fold  drama 
of  Wallenstein,  translated  by  Coleridge.  Also,  and  especially,  S.  R. 
Gardiner's  "  The  Thirty  Years'  War,"  a  brief  sketch,  which  brings 
into  strong  relief  the  chief  events  and  results. 


326 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


NOTES. 

1.  Upon  the  capture  of  Rhodes  (§460),  the  Knights  of  St.  John  received 
from  Charles  V.  a  gift  of  tlie  island  of  Malta  for  their  permanent  resi- 
dence, and  their  industry  soon  converted  its  rocky  cliffs  into  both  a 
garden  and  a  fortress.  Their  grand-master  at  this  time  was  La  Valette, 
a  veteran  in  his  68th  year,  who,  in  his  youth,  "had  witnessed  the  mem- 
orable siege  of  Rhodes,  and  had  passed  successively  through  every  post 
In  the  Order,  from  the  humblest  to  the  highest,  which  he  now  occupied." 
Learning  Solyman's  designs,  he  "  summoned  the  knights  absent  in  for- 
eign lands,  imported  provisions  from  Sicily  and  Spain,  drilled  the  native 
militia,  and  worked  with  his  own  hands  upon  the  repair  of  the  fortifi- 
cations." Then  summoning  his  brethren  to  the  chapel  of  the  convent, 
he  reminded  them  that  they  were  the  "forlorn  hope  of  Christendom," 
the  "chosen  soldiers  of  the  cross;"  and  the  whole  number,  having  par- 
taken together  of  the  sacrament,  solemnly  renewed  their  vows.  On 
the  morning  of  May  18,  1565,  the  Turkish  fleet  appeared— 180  ships,  be- 
sides transports  and  30,000  men.  The  castle  of  St.  Elmo  was  first  in- 
vested, and,  after  a  month's  siege,  sustained  with  incredible  heroism, 
was  reduced  to  a  heap  of  ruins,  in  which  nearly  all  its  defenders  were 
buried.  The  attacks  upon  II  Borgo  and  its  protecting  castles  of  St. 
Michael  and  St.  Angelo  were,  if  possible,  more  determined;  but  the  re- 
sistance was  also  more  successful.  "  Mustapha  ran  his  mines  under  the 
Christian  defenses,  until  the  ground  was  perforated  like  a  honey-comb, 
and  the  garrison  seemed  to  be  treading  on  the  crust  of  a  volcano.  La 
Valette  countermined  in  his  turn.  The  Christians,  breaking  into  the 
galleries  of  the  Turks,  engaged  them  boldly  underground;  and  some- 
times the  mine,  exploding,  buried  both  Turk  and  Christian  under  a 
heap  of  ruins.  Baffled  at  every  point,  with  their  ranks  hourly  thinned 
by  disease,  the  Moslem  troops  grew  sullen  and  dispirited."  At  this 
crisis,  the  Viceroy  of  Sicily  arrived  with  a  fleet  and  army  to  the  aid  of 
the  brave  defenders  of  the  island,  and  Mustapha,  getting  his  enormous 
cannon  on  board  his  galleys,  sailed  away  for  Constantinople.  His 
arrival  threw  Solyman  into  a  furious  rage,  and  stamping  on  the 
letters  that  announced  it,  he  declared  that  as  he  had  no  officer  whom 
he  could  trust,  he  would  himself  lead  an  expedition  to  Malta  the  next 
year  and  kill  every  man  on  the  island.  To  avoid  public  notice,  he 
caused  the  fleet  bearing  the  shattered  remnants  of  his  army  to  come 
into  port  in  the  night — a  striking  contrast  to  the  sailing  of  the  brilliant 
armament  from  the  Golden  Horn  amidst  the  joyous  acclamations  of 
the  multitude.  In  Malta,  on  the  other  hand,  the  eighth  of  September, 
the  day  of  the  Turks'  departure,  is  still  celebrated  as  a  most  glorious 
anniversary. 

Read  the  full  account  in  "  Prescott's  Philip  II.,"  Vol.  II.,  pp.  390--505. 

2.  "What  brought  most  pleasure  to  the  hearts  of  the  conquerors  was 
the  liberation  of  12,000  Christian  captives,  who  had  been  chained  to  the 
oar  on  board  the  Moslem  galleys,  and  who  now  came  forth,  with  tears 
of  joy  streaming  down  their  haggard  cheeks,  to  bless  their  deliverers."— 
Prescott,  Philip  II.,  Vol.  III.,  p.  356. 

3.  Kepler's  greatest  discovery  was  of  three  Laws  which  determine 
the  motions  of  the  planets.  Sir  John  Herschel  pronounced  them  "  the 
most  important  and  beautiful  system  of  geometrical  relations  which 
have  ever  been  discovered  by  a  mere  inductive  process."  In  his  devout 
joy  at  the  grandeur  of  the  truth  that  had  dawned  upon  him,  Kepler 
exclaimed,  "  O  God,  I  think  Thy  thoughts  after  Thee ! "  And  when  it 
was  said  to  him  that  few  would  ever  be  able  to  understand  his  abstruse 
reasonings,  he  replied,  "It  matters  not;  I  can  well  afford  to  wait  a 
hundred  years  for  a  reader,  since  God  has  waited  six  thousand  years 
for  an  observer." 

4.  Tycho  Brahe  was  of  a  noble  Swedish  family.  An  eclipse  of  the 
sun,  which  occurred  in  August,  1560,  four  months  before  he  completed 
his  15th  year,  gave  direction  to  his  whole  life.  For,  while  supposed 
to  be  reading  law  at  Leipsic,  he  employed  the  whole  time  while  his 
tutor  was  asleep,  in  a  study  of  the  stars  and  planets.  Subsequently, 
Frederic  II.  of  Denmark,  gave  him  an  island  near  Copenhagen,  and 


NOTES.  327 


built  for  him  there  tho  mngniflcent  observatory  cuIIimI  OninionborR,  or 
City  of  the  Heavens.  After  twenty  years  spent  in  iniixirtnnt  <lise<>v«Ti««, 
Tyt'lio  lost  Ills  royal  patron,  ami  s(M)n  afterwards  the  iKMislons  by  whieli 
he  Inul  l)een  enabled  to  maintain  his  establishment.  II(>  aeeepted  tlio 
patronaKe«>f  the  Kmperor  Undolph,  and  settle<l,  in  A.  1>.  HHK),  at  I^rauue, 
where  Kepler  heeaine  his  asslstamt.  Tyeho  Hralu>  dl8eovere<l  the  true 
theory  of  eomets,  e^italoKued  777  stairs,  and  made  some  gre^it  improve- 
ment.s  in  tno  theories  concerning  tho  moon. 

5.  This  extmonlinary  man  was  born  Baron  von  Wallenstcin,  but  be- 
came, by  imperial  appointment,  Duke  of  Meeklenbun?,  Frledland,  and 
Kagau,  and  Prince  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire.  Though  his  parents 
were  ProtesUmts,  he  was  educated  In  the  Jesuit  collejie  at  Olmiitx  and 
afterwanls  studied  at  Bologna  and  Padua.  Ills  belief  In  astrology— <.  r., 
in  tho  power  of  the  stare  over  human  destiny— he  held  In  common  with 
most  of  the  men  of  his  time.  He  had  iKJwerfid  enemies  at  court,  and 
It  is  possible  that  his  treasoiuible  designs  were  exaggerated.  But  it  Is 
certain  that,  after  the  battle  of  I^elpsic,  Wallensteln  sent  a  messenger 
to  Gustavus,  offering,  if  the  king  would  entrust  him  with  15,(X)0  men,  U) 
conquer  ]U)hemia  and  Moravia,  surprise  Vienna,  and  drive  the  empe- 
ror Into  Ital.v.  The  king  did  not  trust  a  man  who  could  so  openly 
avow  himself  a  traitor,  and  declined  the  offer. 

e.  Gustavus  Adolphus  was  a  son  of  Charles  IX.  of  Sweden,  and 
grandson  of  (iustaivus  Vasj\,  the  founder  of  the  dynasty  (gSSS).  Be- 
coming king  before  he  was  17  years  of  age,  he  found  himself  engtiged 
In  war  with  Denmark.  Before  this  was  ended,  a  conflict  with  Russia 
had  begun,  and  this  Avas  followed  by  a  9  yeai"s'  war  with  the  powerful 
kingdom  of  Poland.  Gustavus  secured  at  last  an  honorable  ))eace,  to- 
gether with  accessions  of  territory  south  and  east  of  the  Jialtic;  but  tho 
greatest  advantage  of  all  was  the  self-discipline  gained  through  expe- 
rience which  fitted  him  for  his  great  i)art  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War. 

Schiller  sjiys:  "The  glorious  battle  of  Ix'ipslc  effected  a  great  change 
In  the  conduct  of  Gustavus  Adoli)hus,  as  well  a.s  In  the  opinion  which 
both  friends  and  foes  entertaine<l  of  him.  ...  In  all  his  subsequent 
openitions,  more  boldness  and  decision  are  observable,  greiiter  deter- 
mination, even  amidst  the  most  unfavorable  circumstances,  a  more 
lofty  tone  toward  his  adversaries,  a  more  dignified  bearing  towards  his 
allies,  and  even  in  his  clemency  something  of  the  forbearance  of  a  con- 
queror." 

Gustavus  hated  flattery.  Shortly  before  the  battle  of  Lutzen,  when 
the  country  people  were  crowding  about  him,  eager  to  look  upon  one 
whom  they  considered  a.s  their  guardian  angel  and   avenger,  and,  if 

Eosslble,  to  touch  the  sheath  of  his  sword  or  the  hem  of  his  garment, 
e  exclaimed,  "Is  it  not  as  if  this  people  would  make  a  God  of  me? 
I  fear  heaven  will  punish  us  for  this  presumption,  and  soon  reveal  to 
this  deludefl  multitude  my  weakness  and  mortality!" 

On  the  morning  of  the  battle  of  Lutzen,  the  whole  Swedish  army, 
kneeling,  joined  in  the  devotions  of  their  king,  and  then  broke  forth 
In  singing  Luther's  hymn,  '■'■Ein  fade  Burg  1st  unser  Gott,"  which  has 
been  c{\lled  the  "  Battle-song  of  the  Reformation."  It  was  the  flrst  time 
that  Gustavus  and  Wallenstcin- the  two  greatest  generals  in  Europe- 
were  to  meet  in  battle  on  equal  terms,  and  every  soldier  felt  how  much 
was  at  stake.  Three  imperial  brigades  were  put  to  flight  by  the  im- 
petuous onset  of  the  Swedes,  but  were  rallied  and  led  back  by  Wallen- 
stcin. A  colonel  of  Swedish  cavalry  having  fallen,  the  king  took  his 
command,  and  charging  far  in  advance  of  his  men,  received  a  mortal 
wound.  His  cousin,  the  Duke  of  Lauenburg,  was  close  behind  him, 
and  received  him  in  his  arms.  " Brother,'*^  stvid  the  kine,  "I  have 
enough;  look  only  to  your  own  life."  His  men  fought  all  the  more 
bravely  In  the  grief  of  their  loss;  and,  after  nine  hours'  desperate  com- 
bat, the  troops  of  Wallenstcin  were  withdrawn. 

7-  To  Oxenstiem,  the  lifelong  counselor  of  Gustavus  Adolphus,  and 
guardian  of  his  daughter  {iJ">«<{i,  we  owe  the  only  attemj)!  at  SwtHlish 
colonization  in  America  (fnHii).  Though  its  connection  with  Sweden 
was  short,  the  settlement  remalne<l  under  Dutch  and  EnRlish  control, 
and  descendants  of  Oxenstlern's  colonists  may  still  be  found  in  Phila- 
delphia and  the  adjacent  country. 


CHAPTER   VIII. 

EUROPEAN     COLONIES. 


HE  bold  explorers  of  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth 
centuries  were  followed  by  a  more  patient  and  plodding  set 
of  men,  who  founded  permanent  settlements  in  the  newly 
discovered  lands. 

The  Hindu  peninsula  was  already  the  seat  of  a  great 
empire  (§  377),  and  of  a  swarming  population  far  more 
skillful  and  industrious  than  their  European  visitors.  Here, 
then,  was  no  room  for  colonization;  the  Portuguese,  and, 
after  them,  the  Dutch,  French,  and  English,  had  to  con-- 
tent  themselves  with  a  few  trading  factories  guarded  by 
forts. 


SPAN/AfiDS  IN  AMERICA.  329 

575.  Jesuit  missionaries  opened  the  way  for  Portuguese 
traders  into  China  and  Japan.  Macao  was  given  them  by 
the  Chinese  emperor,  and  continued  in  their  possession 
until  it  became  a  free  port,  in  1846.  The  Japanese  seem 
to  have  been  less  favorably  impressed  by  their  first  ac- 
quaintance witli  Europeans,  for,  in  1637,  the  government 
ordered  a  general  massacre  of  native  Christians  and  the 
expulsion  of  all  foreigners,  while  natives  were  forbidden  to 
leave  the  country.  For  more  than  two  centuries  Japan 
shut  herself  up  from  all  the  world;  but  in  our  day  she 
has  suddenly  opened  her  doors  and  welcomed  not  only 
trade,  but  the  most  familiar  intercourse  with  the  western 
nations. 

576.  The  great  rich  domain  of  Brazil,*  in  South  America, 
was  divided,  by  the  king  of  Portugal,  into  extensive  fiefs, 
called  captaincies.  By  their  subjection  to  Spain  (§  525), 
the  Portuguese  lost  their  whole  eastern  dominion,  and,  for 
a  time,  that  of  Brazil;  but  the  latter  was  regained  and  at 
length  became  an  independent  empire,  ruled  by  a  branch 
of  the  royal  family  of  Portugal. 

577.  Spain  treated  her  colonists  in  the  New  World  in 
the  most  selfish  and  despotic  manner.  They  were  forbid- 
den to  make  their  own  clothes,  furniture,  tools,  or  even 
some  necessary  articles  of  food;  for  all  these  things  must 
be  bought  of  the  mother-country.  They  were  not  per- 
mitted to  build  ships,  nor  to  trade  with  the  colonies  of 
other  nations.  Once  a  year  a  merchant  fleet  from  Spain 
brought  whatever  they  were  supposed  to  need,  in  exchange 
for  American  products;  and  the  colonists  must  pay  what- 
ever their  masters  chose  to  ask,  or  lose  all  opportunity 
to  dispose  of  their  merchandise.  Their  governors  were 
natives  of  Spain,  who  had  no  interest  in  the  colonies  ex- 
cept to  enrich  themselves  as  soon  as  possible.  Under 
such  bondage,  it  is  needless  to  say  that  the  Spanish  col- 
onies   did    not    flourish;     and,    though    they    have    now 


330 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


secured  their  independence,  the  people  are  still  lacking  in 
enterprise. 

578.  Doubtless,  this  stupid  tyranny  was  fortunate  for 
the  European  Protestants  of  the  sixteenth  century;  for  a 
wise  and  liberal  system  of  government  would  have  drawn 
enormous  wealth  from  these  vast  and  rich  domains,  and 
Charles  V.  and  Philip  II.  might,  indeed,  have  been  lords 
of  the  world  (§§  444,  525).  But,  then,  if  Spain  had  been 
either  wise  or  liberal,  she  would  not  have  chosen  to  crush 
the  Reformation,  to  ruin  the  Netherlands,  or  to  deprive 
herself  of  the  industry  of  the  Moors  and  Jews  (§  434). 

579.  The  false  theory  that  only  gold  and  silver  consti- 
tuted wealth  led  to  a  comparative  neglect  of  the  fertile 
soil  of  the  colonies,  and  to  stringent  edicts  against  export- 
ing the  precious  metals  from  Spain;  while  the  decay  of 
industry  left  the  Spaniards  very  little  to  buy  at  home ;  and 
so  their  gold  would  have  been  nearly  useless  if  the  edicts 
had  not  been  disobeyed.  It  must  be  confessed  that  the 
Dutch  and  English  shared  the  same  erroneous  ideas. 
Their  colonies  were  supposed  to  exist  only  for  the  benefit 
of  the  parent  state,  and  were  narrowly  watched  lest  they 
should  grow  too  prosperous. 

580.  Though  the  whole  western  continent,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  Brazil,  had  been  given  to  Spain  by  Pope  Alex- 
ander VI.,  France  and  England  made  good  their  claim  to 
a  large  share  of  North  America.  The  beautiful  meadows 
of  Acadia,  now  Nova  Scotia,  were  settled  by  French  peas- 
ants about  1604;  Quebec  was  founded  in  1608,  and  Mon- 
treal in  1640.  The  French  policy  was  to  treat  the  Indians 
like  friends  and  brothers,  and  so  secure  their  aid.  They 
slept  in  the  wigwams  of  the  savages,  ate  of  their  loath- 
some food,  and  fought  their  battles  with  the  terrible  fire- 
arms which  were  sure  to  give  victory  over  those  who 
encountered  them  for  the  first  time. 

581.  In  this  way,  with  an  Algonquin  war-party,   Samuel 


FOUNDING    OF  NEW    YORK.  33 » 

Champlain,*in  1609,  explored  the  beautiful  lake  which  how 
bears  his  name,  and  encountered  the  Iroquois  of  central 
New  York.  At  another  time  he  penetrated  the  Canadian 
wilderness  to  the  headwaters  of  the  Ottawa  and  to  Lake 
Huron,  gaining  a  host  of  savage  allies.  La 
Salle*  explored  the  Mississippi  River  from  its 
source  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico;  and  caused  a  loud-voiced 
herald  to  proclaim  that  the  *'most  high,  mighty,  invincible, 
and  victorious  prince,  Louis  the  Great,  king  of  France  and 
Navarre,"  was  lord  of  all  the  country  from  which  the  great 
river  drew  its  waters.  His  attempt  to  colonize  ''Louisi- 
ana"—  so  the  whole  vast  region  was  called  in  honor  of 
Louis  XIV. — resulted  in  a  sad  failure. 

582.  The  first  settlement  within  the  present  limits  of 
the  United  States  was  made  by  French  Protestants,  in 
1564,  under  the  patronage  of  Coligny  (§  480).  It  was 
exterminated  by  Spaniards  from  St.  Augustine;  but  the 
recollection  of  the  attempt  led  many  exiled  Huguenots  to 
seek  homes  in  the  Carolinas,  when,  in  1685,  the  revocation 
of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  deprived   them  of  safety  at  home. 

583.  Early  in  the  seventeenth  century,  Henry  Hudson,^ 
in  the  service  of  the  Dutch  Republic,  while  looking  for  a 
north-west  passage  to  India,  discovered  the  river  which 
now  bears  his  name.  The  Dutch  West  India  Company 
undertook  to  colonize  the  "New  Netherlands,"  including, 
under  that  name,  the  whole  tract  between  Chesapeake 
Bay  and  Connecticut  River,  which  Hudson  had  explored. 
A  fort  and  a  few  huts  were  built  on  Manhattan 

Island,  for  purposes  of  trade  with  the  Indians,  ^  '*' 

and  hence  grew,  in  time,  the  greatest  city  of  the  western 
hemisphere.  A  settlement  of  Swedes  on  the  Delaware  was 
conquered  and  absorbed  into  New  Netherlands;  but  soon 
afterwards  the  whole  Dutch  territory  was  ceded  to  the 
English  (§  545),  who  divided  it  into  the  colonies  of  New 
York  and  New  Jersey. 


33' 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


584.  The  English  colonies  in  America  were  founded, 
mainly,  by  private  enterprise,  and  owed  nothing  to  the 
home  government  except  the  land  which  they  occupied. 
They  covered  only  a  strip  of  Atlantic  coast  from  the 
St.  John's  River  to  the  Penobscot;  but,  though  far  less 
extensive  than  the  French  setdements,  they  were,  at  the 
close  of  the  seventeenth  century,  more  populous  and  flour- 
ishing. Each  of  the  thirteen  colonies  had  its  House  of 
Assembly  chosen  by  the  people,  like  the  "Commons"  at 
home;  while  the  royal  power  was  represented  by  a  gov- 
ernor appointed  by  the  king. 

The  oldest  colony  was  Virginia,  so  named  in  honor  of 
Queen  Elizabeth,  though  it  was  not  permanendy  founded 
until  the  reign  of  her  successor.  Its  capital  city,  as  well 
as  the  river  by  which  it  stood,  bore  the  name  of  James  I. 
Among  the  earliest  adventurers  in  Virginia  were  many 
young  cavaliers,  who  had  ruined  their  fortunes  by  a  self- 
indulgent  life,  and  hoped  to  find  gold  and  jewels  enough 
in  the  New  World  to  make  them  rich  again.  These  hopes 
were,  of  course,  doomed  to  disappointment,  and  the  colony 
was  nearly  destroyed  by  famine  and  the  hostility  of  the 
natives;  but,  as  soon  as  industry  and  good  sense  took  the 
place  of  idle  speculation,  Jamestown  began  to  flourish. 

The  New  England  colonies  were  founded  in  no  expec- 
tation of  sudden  wealth.  The  first  pilgrims  willingly  ac- 
cepted lives  of  toil,  hardship,  and  peril  for  the  sake  of 
"freedom  to  worship  God"  in  a  manner  which  their  con- 
sciences approved.  It  must  be  confessed  that  they  some- 
times denied  to  others  the  religious  freedom  which  they 
had  taken  such  pains  to  require  for  themselves.  But  relig- 
ious liberty  grew  by  all  these  trials.  The  colony  of  Rhode 
Island  was  founded  by  an  exile  from  Massachusetts. 
Rhode  Island  has  the  honor  of  the  first  distinct  enactment 
that  no  man  should  be  disturbed,  or  in  any  way  called  in 
question,  on  account  of  his  religion;  and  Maryland  was 
not  long  in  following   the  good  example.     In  his  colony 


EUROPEAN  SETTLEMENTS,  333 

on  the  Delaware,  the  Quaker,  William  Penn,*put  in  prac- 
tice the  just  and  peaceable  principles  of  his  sect.  He 
dealt  with  the  Indians  as  if  they  had  been  Christians  like 
himself;  and  so  well  did  the  savages  appreciate  his  confi- 
dence that  no  Quaker  settlement  ever  suffered  from  their 
attacks. 


SYNOPSIS  OF  EUROPEAN   SETTLEMENTS 
BEFORE  A.   D.   1700. 

Poiiuguese : — Madeira,  142 1  ;  the  Azores,  1432;  Malabar  Coast, 
1498;  Cochin,  1503;  Goa,  15 10;  Ormuz,  151 5;  Macao, 
1517J  Bombay,  1530;  Gold  Coast  (Africa),  1610; 
Brazil,    1501-1530;    Capital   at    Bahia,    1549. 

Spatn'sh:  —  Canaries,  1405;  Hayti,  1495;  New  Grenada,  1510;  Cuba, 
1511;  Venezuela,  1520;  Mexico,  1521  ;  Nicaragua, 
1522;  Peru,  1532;  Quito,  Guayaquil,  and  Buenos 
Ayres,  1535;  Santiago  de  Chili,  1540;  Philippine 
Islands,    1566;    Porto    Bello,    1584. 

Fnuch:  —  Nova  Scotia,  1604;  Quebec,  1608;  Montreal,  1640; 
Guiana,     1604;    Senegal,     1637;     Pondicherry,     1674. 

Dutch:  —  Guiana,  1580;  Spice  Islands,  1607;  Java,  1612;  Gold 
Coast,  161 1;  New  Amsterdam,  1614;  Cura9ao,  1634; 
Mauritius,    1644;    Cape   of  Good    Hope,    1650. 

British:  —  Surat,  1612;  Madras,  1639;  Bombay,  1662;  Guiana, 
1630;  Gold  Coast,  1661  ;  Virginia,  1607;  Massachu- 
seltij,  1620,  New  Hampshire,  1623;  Connecticut, 
1635;  Rhode  Island,  1636;  North  Carolina,  1653; 
South    Carolina,    1670;    Pennsylvania,    1683. 


Read  Robertson's  "America;"  Parkman's  "Pioneers  of  France 
in  the  New  World;"  and  Bancroft's  "History  of  the  United 
States,"   Vols.    I,    H,    and    III. 


334  MODERN  HISTORY. 


NOTES. 

1.  Brazil  was  the  seat  of  the  first  agricultural  colonies  in  the  New 
World.  The  sugar  cane  was  early  brought  from  Madeira,  and  was  found 
well  suited  to  tlie  soil.  Great  plantations  and  manufactories  were  es- 
tablished, and  quantities  of  sugar  were  exported  to  Europe.  King  John 
111.,  of  Portugal,  made  the  first  attempt  to  give  Brazil  a  regularly  organ- 
ized government,  by  granting  domains  called  captaincies,  each  extend- 
ing 50  leagues  along  the  coast,  and  as  far  inland  as  the  means  and 
courage  of  the  proprietor  allowed  him  to  penetrate.  The  first  captaincy 
was  in  the  present  province  of  San  Paulo;  and  here,  about  1552,  the  first 
college  was  founded.    It  exists  to  this  day,  as  a  great  law  school. 

The  magnificent  harbor  of  Rio  Janeiro  was  first  explored  by  Martin 
de  Sousa,  in  1531,  but  his  settlement  was  upon  the  island  of  St.  Vincent; 
and  the  site  of  the  present  capital  was  first  occupied  by  the  French 
under  Villegagnon,  in  1538.  Villegagnon  gained  the  favor  of  Collgny 
(^  480  and  note)  by  Intimating  that  his  colony  would  serve  as  a  refuge 
for  the  persecuted  Huguenots;  and  thus  secured  a  large  number  of  in- 
dustrious and  valuable  settlers.  But  as  soon  as  he  thought  himself  safe 
beyond  the  sea,  he  began  to  oppress  and  ill-treat  his  colonists,  so  that 
many  of  them  felt  obliged  to  return,  and  10,000  more,  who  were  waiting 
in  France  to  embark,  changed  their  minds.  Finding  that  his  treachery 
had  defeated  itself,  Villegagnon  sailed  for  France,  and  the  Portuguese 
Governor  General  attacked  and  dispersed  the  settlement,  replacing  it 
by  a  Portuguese  colony. 

The  first  Governor  General  of  Brazil,  Thome  de  Sousa,  had  founded, 
in  1549,  the  city  of  Bahia  for  a  common  capital  of  all  the  settlements 
which  now  dotted  the  coast  from  the  Amazon  to  the  La  Plata.  Many 
orphan  boys  and  girls  were  sent  out  by  the  Portuguese  government— 
the  boys  to  be  educated  by  the  Jesuits,  who  were  teaching  the  elements 
of  religion  and  morality  to  both  colonists  and  savages. 

While  Brazil  was  nominally  subject  to  Spain,  the  Dutch,  who  were 
at  war  with  that  power,  made  many  efforts  to  establish  themselves  on 
the  coast.  They  captured  Bahia,  and,  though  it  was  soon  lost,  Count 
Maurice  of  Nassau  maintained  Dutch  supremacy  in  Brazil  for  fourteen 
years,  and  aspired  to  be  the  founder  of  a  great  western  empire. 

But  in  1640,  a  revolution  in  Portugal  placed  the  Braganzas,  the  pres- 
ent ruling  family,  on  the  throne,  and,  in  a  few  years,  the  Brazilian 
provinces  were  reduced  to  obedience. 

2.  Samuel  de  Champlain,  first  Governor  of  Canada,  was  born  at 
Brouage,  in  France,  1567.  He  gained  the  favor  of  Henry  IV.  by  his 
gallant  service  in  the  French  navy  in  the  war  against  Spain,  and,  in 
1603,  visited  the  St.  Lawrence  under  the  king's  patronage.  Five  years 
later,  he  laid  the  foundations  of  Quebec,  and  the  next  summer  joined 
the  Algonquins  in  one  of  their  expeditions  to  the  interior.  His  first 
meeting  with  the  Iroquois  was  at  the  present  site  of  Crown  Point,  in 
the  State  of  New  York.  They  had  never  seen  fire-arms,  and  were  con- 
fident ol  victory.  Champlain  placed  himself  at  the  center  of  the  Al- 
gonquin line,  his  two  French  comrades  at  either  end,  and  at  their  first 
aim  three  Iroquois  chiefs  fell  dead.  Dismayed  by  this  novel  mode  of 
warfare,  the  Iroquois  fled,  thinking  themselves  pursued  by  bolts  from 
Heaven.  Champlain  became  Governor  of  Canada  in  1620.  The  English 
captured  Quebec  in  1628,  but  restored  it  a  year  or  two  later  on  the  con- 
clusion of  peace,  and  there  Champlain  died  in  1635. 

3.  The  exciting  story  of  La  Salle's  adventures  must  be  read  in  Park- 
man's  History  of  the  "Discovery  of  the  Great  West."  La  Salle  was  the 
discoverer  of  the  Ohio  and  the  Illinois  Rivers ;  he  built  and  launched  above 
Niagara  Falls  the  "  first  vessel  that  ever  plowed  the  waters  of  Lake 
Erie,"  and  explored  the  lakes  as  far  as  Green  Bay;  built  Fort  Cr6vecoeur 
below  Peoria,  and  thus  claimed  Illinois  for  the  French  by  right  of  first 
settlement;  explored  the  Mississippi, and  finally  was  murdered  in  Texas 
by  some  of  his  own  men,  after  twenty  years  of  incredible  hardships. 

4.  In  1607,  Hudson,  in  the  service  of  London  merchants,  had  cruised 
along  the  eastern  coast  of  Greenland  farther  than  any  mariner  had 
gone  before,  and  finding  his  northward  progress  at  length  blocked  by 
ice,  had  crossed  the  polar  sea  to  Spitzbergen,  and  vainly  tried  to  reach 


NOTES.  335 


the  Pncltlo  throuKh  the  ftt)zcn  passage  between  thut  iKland  and  Nova 
Zi'inbhi.  Thi'  next  yt>ar,  in  the  HtTvlcf,  now,  of  tho  Dutch  Kiint  India 
Couinany,  he  riMicwfil  this  srarcli  for  a  nor(h-<»a.st  passam*  to  ('liina; 
but,  l)t'in«  aKHin  th\vart<»<l  hy  tlu'  Icr,  lu*  turned  wostwani,  and,  after  a 
stormy  voyam- of  neairly  thnv  months,  reached  the  hanksof  Newfound- 
land. ContinninK  his  voyage  to  the  southwjird,  he  tonelied  tlie  e<uu*t 
of  what  Is  now  Maine,  cruised  in  siglit  of  Cape  Cod,  an<i  explored  Dei- 
aware  llay,  l)e fore,  ret niclni?  part  t>f  Ills  course,  lie  entered  the  l>eautiful 
harlx)r  of  New  York.  He  huuh'd  a  lioat's  crew  at  Coney  Island,  Si-pt. 
•1,  hJU!».  Afterwanls  lie  a.^cended  wind  he  calle<l  the  "great  nortli  river," 
to  lx\vond  wliere  Alliany  now  st^inds,  Iioping  to  find  tluit  it  atlbrded  an 
entrance  to  the  Pacific.  His  next  voyage  wa.s  his  hist.  In  UUO  he  dls- 
covert»d  and  exi)lored  the  great  nortliern  hay  wliich  Ix-urs  his  name, 
and  spent  the  following  winter  there,  in  great  sulfering  for  want  of 
provisions.  In  the  spring  of  IHU,  his  crew  mutinied,  and  turnetl  Hud- 
son anil  his  son  adrift  in  an  open  boat  on  that  stormy  sea,  while  tiiey 
returned  with  the  ship  to  Europe. 

5.  "William  Penn  was  the  eldest  son  of  Admiral  Penn,  an  able  and 
dlstinguislied  oltlcer  In  the  Hrltlsh  navy.  While  studving  at  Oxford,  he 
btH'ame  Interested  in  the  new  sect  of  Friends  or  "  Q,uak«'rs  "  and  his 
adiierence  to  tiieir  principles  as  to  dress,  man nei"s,  and  worship  brought 
upon  him  the  stern  displeasure  of  his  father,  who  had  destined  his  son 
to  the  gay  court  life  to  Mhlch  his  \vealth  and  station  entitled  him. 
Twice  the  younger  Penn  M'aus  expelle<l  from  his  father's  house,  and 
twice  at  least  he  was  Imprisoned  for  his  dis.sent  from  the  established 
worship.  The  admiral,  however,  became  fully  reconcdled  with  his  son, 
whose  course  he  even  approved  In  his  dying  words:  "  l^t  nothing  In 
this  world  ever  tempt  you  to  wrong  your  conscience." 

Coming  into  possession  of  his  fath(>r's  large  fortune,  William  Penn 
took  an  active  part  In  the  liberal  i)olitics  of  his  time,  warmly  further- 
ing the  election  of  Algernon  Sidney  to  parliament  (^r>l8).  Disappointed 
for  the  time  in  his  hoi)es  of  Kngland,  he  resume<l  his  youthful  prqiect 
of  esta»)lishing  a  better  society  among  the  American  forests.  He  nad 
been  called  to  act  as  umnire  in  the  settlement  of  a  dispute  c<mcernlng 
Western  New  Jersey,  and  used  his  power  atlcrwards  as  trustee  for  that 
colony,  in  securing  a  very  liberal  constitution,  and  i)romotlng  the  emi- 

f [ration  of  "Friends"  to  the  eivstern  banks  of  the  Delaware.  In  KiSo. 
le  procured  from  Charles  II.  a  large  tract  west  of  that  river,  with  full 
sovereign  rights,  in  payment  of  a  large  debt  which  the  English  gov- 
ernment owed  his  father.  He  intended  to  call  it  8^/lvanui,  as  a  land  of 
forests;  the  king  Insisted  on  naming  it  Pennsylvania  in  spite  of  Penn's 
remonstrances,  who  "feared  lest  it  should  be  looked  on  as  vanity." 
Here  the  "Quaker  Prince"  desired  to  establish  a  "free  colony  for  the 
good  and  oppres.sed  of  all  nations,"  using  his  sovereign  iK)Wer  only  for 
the  full  trial  of  his  "holy  experiment,'*  whether  perfict  justice  and 
go<Ml  will,  without  severe  restrictions,  would  constitute  a  secure  foun- 
dation for  a  state.  The  name  which  he  gave  his  new  capital  was  a 
pledge  of  the  "brotherly  love  "  that  he  hoped  to  see  prevailing. 

Swedes,  Finns,  and  Dutch  were  already  numerous  along  tiie  Dela- 
ware (see  Ch.  VII.,  note  7).  Gei-vutntmmi,  now  a  part  of  Philadelphia, 
was  founde<l  bv  a  company  of  "  Friends"  from  Kirchhelm,  near  Worms. 
In  November,  1(582,  Penn  made  a  treaty  with  the  chiefs  of  the  neigh- 
boring Indians,  promising  them  the  same  just  and  equal  friendship 
which  he  designed  for  his  white  tenants. 

Ihe  Duke  of  York,  who,  in  1GS.5,  became  King  James  II.  of  England, 
liad  been  a  comrade  and  warm  friend  of  Admiral  Penn,  and  faitljfully 
kept  his  promise  to  the  dying  Admiral  by  continuing  his  friendship 
and  protection  to  his  son.  In  1682,  the  duke  bestowed  upon  Penn  the 
"three  lower  counties"  on  Delaware  Bay,  which  now  constitute  the 
state  of  Delaware. 

Penn  became  poor  in  the  prosecution  of  his  great  "experiment."  He 
was  defrauded  by  his  agents,  and  preferred  to  go  to  prison  rather  than 
attempt  to  satisfy  their  unjust  claims.  A  modemte  loan,  which  he 
asked  of  the  colonial  legislature,  was  refused  him,  and  he  died,  1718, 
having  spent  a  long  life  in  the  service  of  otiiei-s,  with  some  reason  to 
doubt  whether  his  attempt  to  promote  ju.stice  and  brotherly  love  were 
altogether  a  success. 


CHAPTER   IX. 


THE    NORTHERN    KINGDOMS. 


D 


Frederic  the  Great. 


^ENMARK,  Sweden,  and  Norway  were 
in  1397  united  under  one  queen, 
Margaret  Waldemar.  Her  successor 
was  less  fortunate;  he  lost  all  three  king- 
doms, and  ended  his  days  as  a  pirate. 
Christian  of  Oldenburg  reunited  Marga- 
ret's dominions,  and  his  family  continued 
to  rule  Denmark  more  than  400  years; 
but  the  barbarous  tyranny  of  his  grandson 
occasioned  a  revolt  in  Sweden,  and  the 
rise  of  a  new  royal  race,  with  Gustavus 
Vasa  as  its  founder.  This  young  noble- 
man had  suffered  grievous  wrongs  from 
the  "Nero  of  the  North" — his  father  hav- 
ing been  beheaded  for  no  crime,  and  himself  imprisoned. 
He  escaped,  and,  putting  on  the  coarse  garments  of  an  ox- 
driver,-  hid  himself  among  the  peasantry  until  he  could  raise 
an  army  of  volunteers,  with  which  he  defeated 
the  Danes,  captured  Upsala,  and  restored  the 
independence  of  Sweden.  The  Diet  then  declared  him 
king,  and  made  the  crown  hereditary  in  his  family. 

586.  His  grandson  was  the  great  hero  of  the  Thirty 
Years'  War  (§§564-569).  The  early  death  of  Gustavus 
Adolphus,  upon  the  field  of  Lutzen,  left  the  crown  to  his 
little  daughter,  Christina,^  then  only  six  years  old.  As 
she  grew  up,  Christina  displayed  wonderful  talents  and 
accomplishments,  but  no  steadiness  of  purpose.  She  was 
(336) 


A.  D. 


IVAN  THE   TERRIBLE,  337 

soon  tired  of  governing;  and,  bestowing  her  kingdom  upon 
her  cousin,  Charles  X.,  spent  the  rest  of  her  life  in  aim- 
less wanderings. 

587.  The  vast  but  ill-governed  realm  of  Poland  held 
discordant  elements  enough  to  keep  not  only  itself  but  all 
its  neighbors  in  a  perpetual  stir.  The  kings  were  elected, 
and  had  litde  power  compared  with  the  nobles.  These 
were  entitled  to  levy  armies  and  make  .war  whenever  any 
proceeding  of  king  or  diet  failed  to  please  them;  and, 
naturally,  war  went  on  almost  all  the  time.  The  powerful 
neighbors  of  Poland— Sweden,  Denmark,  Brandenburg, 
Russia,  and  Austria  —  found  many  occasions  to  interfere 
in  her  affairs  at  the  invitation  of  one  or  another  party; 
and  at  length,  as  we  shall  see,  the  last  three  named  divided 
her  whole  territory  among  them. 

588.  Russia,  after  a  hundred  years'  fighting,  was  made 
free  from  her  Mongol  oppressors  (§376),  about  A.  D.  1481, 
by  I'van  III.  Still  she  was  only  an  inland  grand  duchy, 
less  powerful  than  Poland  or  Bohemia — very  different  from 
that  mighty  empire  which  now  occupies  nearly  half  of 
Europe  and  all  northern  Asia,  while  her  victorious  armies 
have  almost  reached  the  borders  of  India.  The  Black  Sea 
was  still  surrounded  by  the  dominion  of  Turkey,  the  Baltic 
and  its  gulfs  by  that  of  Sweden;  and  it  was  a  hundred 
years  later  that  an  entrance  for  English  traders  into  Russia 
was  effected  through  the  Arctic  Ocean,  by  the  new  port 
of  Archangel. 

589.  Under  Ivan  the  Terrible,  the  first  "Czar  of  Mus- 
covy" (A.  D.  1538- 1584),  Kazan  and  Astrachan  were 
taken  from  the  Tartars;  and  the  vast  frozen  plains  of 
Siberia,  extending  eastward  to  the  Pacific,  were  added  to 
the  Russian  dominion.  Ivan's  son,  Fe'odor,  was  last  of 
the  line  of  Ruric  (§327),  and  his  death  was  followed  by 
years  of  civil  war.  In  A.  D.  16 13,  Michael  Ro'manoflf, 
ancestor  of  the  present  Czar,  came  to  the  throne. 

Hist  —  aa. 


33^  MODERN  HISTORY. 

590.  His  grandson,  Feodor  II.,  having  no  children,  and 
passing  over  his  incompetent  brother  Ivan,  bequeathed  his 
crown  to  his  half-brother  Peter,  a  bright  but  obstinate  boy 
of  ten  years.  Though  Ivan  was  too  feeble  to  protest,  his 
sister  Sophia  interfered  in  his  behalf,  and  managed  to  have 
the  two  crowned  as  joint  sovereigns,  with  herself  as  regent. 
Even  in  boyhood  Peter  perceived  the  needs  of  his  empire, 
and  resolved  to  redeem  it  from  barbarism,  and  give  it  a 
high  rank  among  the  European  states.  He  studied  dili- 
gently, and  practiced  himself  in  all  that  he  wished  his 
people  to  know.  He  drilled  in  the  ranks  of  a  new  com- 
pany of  soldiers,  with  which  he  meant  to  replace  the 
Strelitz,  or  imperial  guard,  which  had  become  too  powerful; 
and  he  attended  so  closely  to  all  the  details  of  his  little 
navy,  that  he  became  "the  best  carpenter,  the  best  pilot, 
and  the  best  admiral  in  the  North." 

591.  Still  further  to  educate  himself,  he  resolved  to  visit 
the  western  nations.  Traveling  as  a  servant  in  one  of  his 
own   embassies,  he   arrived  in  Holland,  and  engaged  as  a 

ship-builder  in  one  of  the  dock-yards  of  Am- 
■  '  ^^'  sterdam.  Here  he  toiled,  in  rough  clothes, 
among  the  other  workmen,  obeyed  orders,  and  received 
his  weekly  wages  like  the  rest.  In  England  he  took  less 
pains  to  disguise  his  imperial  rank,  and  was  treated  with 
friendly  attention  by  William  III.  (§555). 

592.  On  his  homeward  journey  he  heard  of  a  new  revolt 
planned  by  his  sister,  and  hastened  to  put  it  down  with 
cruel  severity.  Sophia  was  immured  in  a  convent,  the 
Strelitzes  were  disbanded,  and  Peter's  new  regiments  took 
their  place.  Then  came  a  struggle  for  reform,  in  which 
the  Czar  had  need  for  all  his  obstinacy,  to  overcome  the 
superstitions  and  fixed  notions  of  his  people.  The  long 
robes  and  bushy  beards  of  the  men  were  cut  short  by  im- 
perial decree;  for,  in  small  things  as  in  great,  Peter  meant 
that  his  own  will  should  control  all  the  millions  who  called 


PETER    THE   GREAT.  339 

him  lord.  In  essential  matters,  he  met  less  resistance; 
colleges,  foundries,  factories,  and  frigates  were  soon  created, 
and  one  great  war-vessel  was  built  by  the  Czar  himself. 
Having  thus  taken  measures  to  civilize  his  empire,  Peter 
thought  the  time  had  come  to  give  it  an  outlet  to  the 
Baltic. 

593.  Charles  XII.  was  now  king  of  Sweden^— an  am- 
bitious youth,  whose  favorite  hero  and  model  was  Alexander 
the  Great  (§§160-164).  His  accession,  in  1697,  when 
only  fifteen  years  old,  tempted  three  powerful  neighbors 
to  increase  their  dominions  at  his  expense.  The  Czar 
besieged  Narva  with  80,000  men  while  Charles 

was  engaged  in  a  war  with  Denmark.     But  this  '  ''°°' 

war  ended  sooner  than  Peter  had  expected,  and  Charles, 
with  only  8,000  men,  came  to  the  relief  of  his  beleaguered 
town.  The  Russian  troops  were  mostly  barbarians,  clothed 
in  skins  of  wild  beasts,  and  armed  with  arrows  and  clubs. 
The  Czar's  magnificent  train  of  artillery  was  useless,  for 
want  of  gunners.  He  suffered  a  ruinous  defeat,  his  entire 
army  being  killed  or  captured. 

594.  Peter  had  that  rare  wisdom  which  can*  learn  of 
an  enemy,  and  draw  strength  even  from  disaster:  "The 
Swedes  will  defeat  us  for  a  time,"  said  he,  *'but  in  the 
end  they  will  teach  us  how  to  conquer  them."  Charles 
turned  aside  to  conquer  Augustus  of  Saxony,  who  was  king 
of  Poland,  but  whom  he  succeeded  in  dethroning.  Peter 
seized  the  land  he  wanted  near  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  trans- 
ported thither  300,000  peasants  from  all  parts  of  his  empire, 
and,  among  the  marshes  formed  by  the  Neva,  laid  the 
foundations  of  his  splendid  new  capital,  St.  Petersburg. 

595.  Having  disposed  of  Poland,  Charles  invaded  Russia 
with  a  great  army.  Here  cold,  hunger,  and  the  fatigues 
of  marching  through  forests  and  bogs  made  sad  havoc 
with  his  troops;  and  at  Pultawa  he  met  his  first  defeat 
(A.  D.  1709).     Both  sovereigns  were  present.     Charles  was 


340  MODERN  HISTORY. 

carried  on  a  litter,  being  disabled  by  a  wound;  but  when  the 
battle  was  lost,  he  mounted  a  horse  and  made  his  retreat  into 
Turkey.  He  soon  persuaded  the  Sultan  to  join  in  war  against 
the  Czar,  whose  ambition  he  had  reason  to  fear.  Peter,  march- 
ing to  meet  the  immense  Turkish  force,  was  disappointed  by 
his  allies,  and  found  himself  in  almost  as  dangerous  a  case  as 
was  Charles  at  Pultawa,  surrounded  by  superior  numbers, 
cut  oif  from  supplies,  and  unable  to  advance  or  retreat.  He 
was  saved  by  the  adroitness  of  his  wife,  the  Empress  Cath- 
erine, who,  presenting  all  her  jewels  to  the  Grand  Vizier, 
managed  to  secure  a  peace  favorable  to  the  Czar. 

596.  Charles  remained  more  than  five  years  in  Turkey, 
a  troublesome  and  unwelcome  guest,  while  his  kingdom,  sur- 
rounded by  many  enemies,  was  going  to  ruin  for  want  of  its 
head.    At  last  he  was  forced  to  depart,  and  made  the  whole 

journey  on  horseback  in  sixteen  days.     Arriving 

at   Stralsund,  he  ordered  war  to  be   prosecuted 

more  fiercely  than  ever.      But  his   good   fortune  was  now 

exhausted;   he  lost  all  his  territories  east  and  south  of  the 

Baltic,  and  met  his  death  Avhile  besieging  a  town  in  Norway. 

597.  Peter's  untiring  perseverance  wrought  immense 
benefits  to  his  country,  and  justified  his  new  title.  Emperor 
of  all  the  Russias;  while  all  subsequent  times  have  agreed 
with  his  own  in  styling  him  Peter  the  Great.  Before  his 
death  he  bestowed  the  crown  upon  his  wife,^  who  reigned 
two  years  alone  as  the  Empress  Catherine  I.,  (A.  D.  1725 
-1727).  This  remarkable  woman  had  been  a  Swedish 
peasant,  and  was  one  of  the  many  prisoners  taken  by  the 
Russians  at  the  capture  of  Marienburg.  She  became  a 
servant  in  the  house  of  Prince  Menschikoff — himself  once 
a  baker-boy — where  the  Czar  saw  her,  and  soon  recognized 
a  quickness  and  firmness  of  mind  equal  to  his  own.  She 
aided  him  in  all  his  plans,  while'  her  even  temper  was 
able  to  soothe  the  violent  fits  of  anger  to  which  he  too 
often  gave  way. 


THE   KINGDOM  OF  /'A'(SS/,I. 


341 


598.  Prussia  was  conquered  by  the  Teutonic  Knights 
(§361)  about  A.  I).  1231-1243.  They  redeemed  it  from 
a  wilderness  of  marshes  and  tliickets,  and  gradually  civilized 
its  pagan  and  half  savage  inhabitants.  After  a  long  series 
of  wars  with  Poland,  a  large  part  of  iis  territories  were 
absorbed  into  that  kingdom,  while  the  (irand  Master  had 
to  do  homage  for  the  rest;  but,  in  1526,  Prussia  became 
an  independent  duchy,  and,  in  16 18,  it  was  annexed  to 
Brandenburg. 

599.  After  the  Thirty  Years'  War  had  passed  by,  like  a 
desolating  storm,  the  able  management  of  the  "Great 
Elector,"  Frederic  William  (A.  D.  1640-1688),  restored 
prosperity  to  the  country.  He  gave  lands  and  homes  to 
20,000  French  refugees  from  the  persecutions  of  Louis 
XIV.  (§626),  and  their  industry  converted  the  sandy  wastes 
about  Berlin  into  gardens  and  orchards.  Many  of  the 
exiles,  too,  were  learned  and  accomplished  people,  whose 
language,  literature,  and  manners  brought  refinement  hith- 
erto unknown  into  Prussian  .society. 

600.  The  son  of  the  Great  Elector  was  made  King 
Frederic  I.  of  Prussia  by  the  Emperor  Leopold,  who  wanted 
his  help  in  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession.  Prussia 
was  already  a  great  military  power,  and  it  became  still 
greater  under  Frederic  William  L,  its  second  king  (A.  D. 
^7^3"  1740)-  He  was  a  morose  and  insufferable  tyrant — 
so  penurious  that  his  children  went  away  hungry  from  his 
table,  and  so  violent  of  temper  that  he  threw  the  plates 
at  their  heads  if  they  dared  to  complain.  He  flogged  his 
son,  the  crown-prince,  when  eighteen  years  old,  before  the 
eyes  of  his  future  subjects;  and  when  the  prince  attempted 
to  escape  to  foreign  parts,  he  was  imprisoned  as  a  deserter, 
and  would  probably  have  been  shot  if  the  emperor  had 
not  interfered. 

601.  One  of  the  king's  whims  was  to  have  a  brigade  of 
the   tallest  grenadiers  in  Europe,  and  he  took  the  greatest 


342  MODERN  HISTORY. 

pains  to  collect  them  from  all  the  northern  countries. 
Every  man  was  more  than  six  feet  high,  and  some  even 
approached  eight  feet.  If  any  king  wanted  to  please 
Frederic  William,  he  sent  him  a  present  of  the  tallest  man 
he  could  find.  His  recruiting  agents  were  always  on  the 
watch,  and  once  they  made  a  serious  mistake  by  kidnap- 
ping the  imperial  embassador!  The  most  humble  apologies 
were  made,  for  the  only  being  on  earth  that  the  king 
stood  in  awe  of  was  the  "Caesar."  For  all  this,  Frederic 
William  was  an  honest,  shrewd,  and  generally  well-meaning 
man;  and  he  left  his  kingdom  in  much  better  condition 
than  he  found  it 

602.  Frederic  II.,  the  Great,  was  the  most  noted  general 
of  his  times;  and  his  wars  began  the  long  contest  between 
Austria  and  Prussia,  which  has  lately  ended  in  making  the 
latter  supreme  in  Germany.  He  came  to  the  throne  in 
May,  1740,  and  the  next  autumn  the  direct  male  line  of 
the  House  of  Hapsburg  ended  with  the  emperor  Charles 
VI.  Having  no  son,  Charles  had  tried  to  secure  his 
hereditary  dominions  to  his  daughter,  and  the  imperial 
crown  to  her  husband,  Francis  of  Lorraine.  The  daughters 
of  his  elder  brother  had  a  better  right;  but,  during  his 
lifetime,  Charles  obtained  their  consent,  and  that  of  most 
of  the  European  sovereigns,  to  his  ''Pragmatic  Sanction," 
which  arranged  the  succession  as  he  wished  it. 

603.  No  sooner  was  Charles  dead  than  most  of  the 
powers  forgot  their  promises.  Frederic  II.  marched  into 
Silesia,  and  soon  made  himself  master  of  it;  while  the 
electors  gave  the  imperial  crown  to  Charles  Albert  of 
Bavaria,  nephew  of  the  late  emperor.  Maria  Theresa  was 
in  a  perilous  position.  Great  Britain  was  her  only  ally, 
while  Prussia,  Poland,  Sardinia,  and  the  three  Bourbon 
courts  of  France,  Spain,  and  Naples  were  against  her, 
beside  many  of  the  German  states.  Her  cousin  was  in- 
stated as  archduke  of  Austria  and  king  of  Bohemia. 


FREDERFC  THE   GREAT,  343 

604.  Taking  refuge  in  Hungary,  Maria  Theresa  presented 

herself,  with  her  infant  son  in  her  arms,  l)cfore  the  assembly 
of  nobles,  and  asked  their  aid  in  regaining  her  rights. 
Though  they  had  many  causes  of  complaint  against  her 
house,  the  brave  princes  were  moved  by  the  sight  of  their 
young  sovereign  in  her  beauty  and  distress.  The  great 
hall  rang  with  their  shout,  **Let  us  die  for  our  kingy  Maria 
Theresa!"  One  hundred  thousand  men  were  soon  under 
arms:  not  only  were  Austria  and  Bohemia  reconcpiered, 
but  Munich,  the  capital  of  Bavaria,  was  taken,  and  the 
emperor  Charles  VII.  was  expelled  from  his  own  heredi- 
tary dominions. 

605.  In  1745  he  died,  and  Francis  of  Lorraine  then 
received  the  crown  of  Charlemagne.  The  "War  of  the 
Austrian  Succession"  was  ended  three  years  later  by  the 
treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle.  Though  formally  at  peace, 
the  empress-queen  cherished  a  bitter  resentment  against 
Frederic  of  Prussia,  who  had  seized  the  moment  of  her 
distress  to  rob  her  of  her  province  of  Silesia;  and  she 
deeply  laid  her  plans  to  combine  all  continental  Europe 
against  him.  Russia,  Sweden,  Saxony,  and  France  —  the 
latter  ultimately  joined  by  the  other  Bourbon  kingdoms 
(§603)  —  took  sides  with  Austria. 

606.  Frederic  struck  the  first  blow  by  a  sudden  invasion 
of  Saxony.  The  Austrians,  coming  to  its  relief,  were 
defeated  at  Lowositz,  and  the  entire  Saxon  army  then 
surrendered  to  him,  most  of  its  common  soldiers  enlisting 
in  his  service.  Pushing  into  Bohemia,  Frederic  gained  a 
great  victory  over  Prince  Charles  of  Lorraine,  the  em- 
peror's brother.  Still  his  affairs  were  so  desperate — his 
whole  dominion  overrun  by  enemies  eager  for  its  destruc- 
tion—  that  he  at  one  time  almost  decided  to  give  up  the 
single-handed  contest,  and  end  his  days  by  poison.  He 
took  braver  counsel,  rallied  his  few  remaining  forces,  and 
by  his  brilliant  victories  of  Rossbach  and  Leuthen,  A.  D. 


344  MODERN  HISTORY. 

1757,  astonished  the  world.  Mr.  Pitt  (§644),  becoming 
premier  in  Great  Britain,  sent  a  liberal  supply  of  the  sinews 
of  war;  a  wild  horde  of  Russians,  Cossacks  and  Calmuck 
Tartars,  was  defeated  at  Zorndorf. 

607.  Yet  greater  dangers  and  disasters  were  in  store  for 
Frederic.  Three  Austrian  armies  surrounded  him  in  Silesia, 
while  an  overwhelming  force  of  Russians  occupied  Berlin, 
destroyed  its  arsenals  and  foundries,  and  plundered  its 
citizens.  His  genius  and  resolution  did  not  fail.  He  de- 
feated the  Austrian  generals  one  by  one;  and  Russia  was 
soon  changed  from  an  enemy  to  a  devoted  friend.  The 
Empress  Elizabeth,  youngest  daughter  of  Peter  the  Great, 
died  in  1762,  and  was  succeeded  by  her  nephew,  Peter  HI. 
The  young  Czar  had  a  romantic  admiration  for  Frederic, 
and  immediately  stopped  the  operations  of  his  armies  in 
Prussia.  The  "Seven  Years'  War"  was  ended  early  in 
1763,  having  cost  nearly  a  million  human  lives,  without 
making  any  change  in  the  boundaries  of  the  warring  nations. 
Prussia  kept  Silesia,  the  original  cause  of  dispute,  and  took 
her  place  among  the  great  powers  of  Europe. 

608.  Peter  HI.  had  reigned  scarcely  six  months,  when 
his  wife  caused  him  to  be  deposed  and  assassinated,  and 
herself  assumed  the  crown  as  Catherine  H.'*  Though  so 
wicked  a  woman,  the  Czarina  had  extraordinary  talents  for 
governing.  She  perfected  many  reforms  which  Peter  the 
Great  had  only  begun;  made  herself  the  leader  of  the 
northern  nations;  dismembered  Poland ;°  conquered  the 
Tartars  of  the  Crimea  —  the  last  of  the  Mongol  hordes 
which  had  once  enslaved  Russia  (§376);  and  estabHshed 
her  power  on  the  Black  Sea. 

609.  Maria  Theresa,  the  Austrian  empress-queen,  was  still 
living,  but  her  son,  Joseph  H.,  had  succeeded  his  father 
as  emperor  of  the  West.  Catherine's  ambitious  movements 
alarmed  both  him  and  Frederic  the  Great,  lest  Poland  and 
Turkey  were  to  be  swallowed  up  by  Russia.     Austrian  and 


PARTITIONS  OF  POLAND,  345 

Prussian  armies  were  marched  into  Poland,  and  the  Czarina, 
unable  to  seize  the  whole  prize  herself,  signed  a  treaty  by 
which  a  third  part  of  the  Polish  territory  was  divided 
among  the  three  powers.  Maria  Theresa  resisted  the  un- 
just scheme  as  long  as  she  could,  and  at  last  signed  the 
treaty  with  the  following  protest:  ''Placet,^ 
because  so   many  great   and    learned    men  will  '  ''^^* 

it;  but  when  I  am  dead,  the  consequences  will  appear  of 
this  violation  of  all  that  has  hitherto  been  held  just  and 
sacred." 

610.  After  her  death,  two  successive  "partitions  com- 
pleted the  work  of  spoliation,  and  Poland,  as  a  kingdom, 
ceased  to  exist.  The  Poles  made  heroic  efforts  to  preserve 
their  independence;  their  general,  Kosciusko,^' after  fighting 
many  battles,  was  captured  and  immured  in  a  Russian 
dungeon;  the  last  king  was  compelled  to  abdicate,  and 
the  central  part  of  the  kingdom,  with  the  capital,  became 
a  mere  province  of  Russia.  Catherine  the  Great  died  one 
year  after  the  completion  of  this  crime,  of  which  the  main 
guilt  rests  upon  her. 


''^ Literally y  "It  pleases  me" — the  form  in  which  emperors  and 
kings  usually  gave  their  consent  to  laws  and  treaties. 

Point  out  the  dominions  of  Margaret  Waldemar.  Of  Gustavus 
Adolphus.  Of  Peter  the  Great  at  his  accession.  Of  the  present 
Czar.  The  old  and  the  new  capital  of  Russia.  The  Polish  capital. 
That  of  Sweden.  Of  Prussia.  The  dominions  of  Maria  Theresa. 
The  province  conquered  from  her  by  Frederic  the  Great.  Pultawa, 
Stralsund. 

Read  Voltaire's  "Peter  the  Great"  and  "Charles  the  Twelfth," 
Carlyle's  *•  Frederic  the  Great,"  and  Dyer's  "  Modern  Europe." 


346 


MEDIAEVAL  HISTORY. 


NOTES. 

1.  The  education  of  Christina  was  directed  by  Chancellor  Oxenstiern 
and  four  other  learned  men.  according  to  tlie  substantial  and  solid  plan 
marked  out  by  her  father.  *'She  learned  Latin,  Greek,  Hebrew,  history, 
politics,  and  otlier  sciences,"  but  no  feminine  accomplishments;  her 
only  amusements  being  horsemanship  and  the  chase.  When  a  mere 
baby  she  had  clapped  her  hands  in  delight  at  the  thunder  of  artillery; 
and  her  subjects  saw  in  her  the  worthy  daughter  of  a  heroic  father. 
She  drew  to  her  court  the  most  distinguished  scientific  and  literary 
men,  whose  conversation  interested  -her  more  than  the  duties  of  her 
kingdom.  She  lived  35  years  after  her  abdication,  chiefly  at  Rome, 
where  she  founded  an  academy  and  made  rich  collections  of  medals 
and  objects  of  art.    She  died  in  1689,  at  the  age  of  08. 

2.  Charles  XII.  was  grandson  of  Charles  X.,  the  cousin  and  successor 
of  Christina  (g  586).  In  his  boyhood,  his  firmness  amounted  to  obstinacy, 
but  he  could  alwaj'S  be  influenced  by  an  appeal  to  his  honor.  When 
threatened  at  once,  at  his  accession,  by  Russia,  Poland,  and  Denmark, 
he  surprised  his  senate  by  his  energy,  and  re-assured  it  by  the  spirited 
declaration:  "I  have  resolved  never  to  wage  an  unjust  war,  nor  ever  to 
close  a  Just  one  except  by  the  destruction  of  my  enemies."  Determined 
to  leave  nothing  to  chance,  he  inured  himself  to  severe  fatigues  and 
privations,  and  took  part  in  all  the  exercises  of  his  soldiers.  He  was 
aided  by  the  sound  advice  of  Count  Piper,  who  had  been  his  father's 
councilor  of  state,  and  became  his  own  prime  minister,  accompanying 
him  in  all  his  campaigns.  Charles  allied  himself  with  England  and 
Holland;  and  their  fleets,  combined  with  his  own,  covered  his  descent 
upon  Denmark.  The  plan  was  so  well  laid  that,  without  battle  or  blood- 
shed, the  King  of  Denmark  was  forced  to  make  large  concessions  for  the 
safety  of  his  capital,  and  undo  tiie  miscliief  he  had  already  done. 

Charles  never  saw  his  capital  (Stockholm)  after  1700,  though  he  reigned 
till  1718.  Having  driven- Augustus  from  Poland,  he  followed  him  into 
Saxony,  and,  fixing  his  camp  at  Leipsic,  received  embassadors  like  a 
conqueror  and  soveueign  prince.  Augustus  abdicated  the  throne  of  Po- 
land in  favor  of  Stanislaus  Leczinsky,  whom  Charles  had  placed  upon 
it.  After  his  defeat  at  Pultawa,  the  character  of  Charles  appears  less 
admirable.  His  long  neglect  of  liis  kingdom  left  it  at  the  mercy  of  its 
enemies.  Augustus  resumed  the  crown  of  Poland,  and  allied  himself 
again  with  Russia  and  Denmark,  while  Stanislaus  took  refuge  in  France. 
All  the  treaties  that  Charles  had  made  were  broken ;  and,  when  envoys 
from  the  Swedish  senate  came  to  his  camp  in  Turkey,  imploring  him 
to  return  and  govern  his  kingdom,  he  insultingly  replied,  "  I  will  send 
one  of  my  old  boots  to  govern  you."  In  his  satii'e  on  the  "Vanity  of 
Human  Wishes,"  Dr.  Johnson  has  written  these  lines: 

•'  On  what  foundation  stands  the  warrior's  pride, 
How  just  his  hopes,  let  Swedish  Charles  decide. 
A  frame  of  adamant,  a  soul  of  fire, 
No  dangers  fright  him  and  no  labors  tire.    .    .    . 
His  fall  was  destined  to  a  barren  strand, 
A  petty  fortress  and  a  dubious  hand; 
He  left  the  name  at  which  the  world  grew  pale 
To  point  a  moral  or  adorn  a  tale." 

3.  Peter's  eldest  son,  Alexis,  was  a  quiet  and  studious  youth,  with 
neither  ambition  nor  taste  for  war,  and  averse  to  the  reforms  which  his 
father  was  introducing.  He  was  claimed  by  the  party  of  "Old  Rus- 
sians," as  their  leader  in  opposition  to  these  reforms,  and  this  drew 
upon  him  the  violent  wrath  of  his  father,  whose  brutality,  when  roused, 
was  scarcely  less  than  that  of  Ivan  the  Terrible.  During  one  of  Peter's 
absences  from  Russia,  Alexis  took  refuge  at  Vienna,  and  afterwards  at 
Naples.  It  was  a  crime  for  any  Russian  noble  to  leave  the  empire  with- 
out the  czar's  especial  perniission,  and  Peter  chose  to  consider  his  son's 
act  as  amounting  to  treason  and  rebellion.  Alexis  was  persuaded  to 
return,  but  was  compelled  to  renounce  his  claims  to  the  crown,  and 
was  soon  afterwards  tried  on  a  charge  of  conspiracy  and  condemned  to 
death.     Early  in  1718,  he  was  found  dead  in  his  prison,  and  there  is 


NOTES,  347 


llttio  doubt  that  ho  hnd  l>ocn  poisoned  by  hl«  fhther'n  order.  Ho  wan 
2H  yoars  of  hko.  and  left  an  infant  son.  who,  nine  years  later,  Ix^rame 
the  Knipen)r  IVter  II.  The  only  reniah»ln«  son  of  Peter  the  (ireatdled 
tlie  followInK  year,  and,  of  all  his  ehll«lren.  only  two  daiinlitorH  survlvwl 
him.    One  of  them,  KllzalH'th,  »K»ea me  empress  In  1711  ['i  mi). 

It  was  uimn  the  eoneluslon  of  the  IVace  of  Nystadt,  In  1721,  which 
ende«l  his  21  years'  war  with  Swe<len,  that  the  senate  anil  synod  eon- 
ferriMl  u]»on  their  ezar  the  new  titles  "  Peter  TiiK  (tUKAT,  Kmperur  of 
all  the  Ku.ssIjus  and  Father  of  his  Country."  He  wrote  to  his  i>nil)aNKii- 
dor  in  I'aris:  "  Apprenticeslilps  usually  end  in  seven  yeai-s,  oun*  Iihm 
husted  thrice  a.s  long;  but,  thank  God,  It  is  at  leuKth  brought  to  the  de- 
Klretl  termination." 

4.  Catherine  II.  was  of  German  birth,  being  a  daughter  of  the  Prince 
of  Anhalt-Zerbst.  The  present  division  of  Russia  Into  "governments," 
dates  from  her  reign;  she  alsti  re-organlzed  the  army  and  civil  service, 
"promoted  agriculture,  commerce,  and  education,  and  liberally  patron- 
ized seientitie  men." 

Her  powerful  favorite,  Potemkin,  was  the  conqueror  of  the  Crimea, 
and,  in  i7K7,  the  czarina  visitetl  her  new  provinces,  to  do  him  honor 
and  to  receive  the  homage  of  her  Tartar  suojects.  Embarking  at  Kiev, 
she  descendtni  the  Dnieiwr  with  a  magnificent  flotilla  of  22  vessels,  ac- 
comnanie<i  by  the  exile<l  king  SUmislaus  of  Poland,  and  by  theEmi^r- 
or  .loseph  II.  To  give  the  new  dominions  an  air  of  prosperity,  Potem- 
kin had  caused  temporary  villages  to  l)e  erected  along  the  route,  and 
S copied  wltli  inhabitants  l)n)Ui:lit  from  a  distance  and  dressetl  In  holl- 
ay  attire.  Herds  of  cattle  tiiazed  in  the  intervening  pastures;  but  as 
S(K)n  a-s  tlie  gay  procession  had  passed,  hamlets,  peoi)le,  and  herds  van- 
Ishe<l  like  a  scene  in  a  Y^hxy .—Mcdia-val  (ind  Miximi  I/istnri/. 

During  the  War  of  American  Independence,  Catlurine  rendered  val- 
uable service  to  our  cause  by  her  proclamation  of  Armed  Neutrality, 
In  which  she  was  joined  by  Denmark,  Sweden,  Prussia,  Austria,  I'ortu- 
gal,  and  the  United  Netherlands,  1780. 

5.  The  following  description  of  Poland  explains  the  temptation  that 
kingdom  offered  to  ambitious  neighbors,  and  the  ea^^e  with  which  their 
plans  were  carrietl  out.  Two  thirds  of  the  nation  were  serfs,  whose  Ig- 
norance and  squalid  misery  made  them  scarcely  different  from  brutes. 
By  law,  they  were  debarred  from  possessing  property:  If  a  crop  failed, 
thousands  died  of  starvation.  The  remaining  one  tliird  consisted  of 
three  orders  of  nobility— with  clergy,  lawyers,  citizens,  and  Jews.  Of 
the  magnates,  or  highest  noJ)les,  there  were  not  more  than  120,  of  whom 
four  or  five  were  the  heads  of  powerful  factions  at  war  with  each  other. 
The  middle  claas  of  nobles  numbered  20,000  or  ;iO,(X)0  persons;  and  the 
lower  nobility,  more  than  a  million.  These  were  an  Idle,  Ignorant,  and 
often  beggarly  class  of  people,  too  proud  to  engage  In  any  employment 
and  too  poor  to  exist  in  comfort  without  it,  and  yet  the  most  insignifi- 
cant of  them  could  nullify  the  proceedings  of  a  whole  diet  by  his  single 
veto.  The  citizens  chiefly  consisted  of  40,000  or  50,000  artisiins,  who,  scat- 
tered in  wretched  villages,  were  almost  as  completely  subject  to  the 
oppressions  of  the  nobles  as  the  serfs  themselves.  Taxation  fell  only  on 
Jews,  artisans,  and  clergy.  The  heads  of  all  departments  of  government 
were  responsible  to  the  diet  and  not  to  the  king,  and  the  diet  was  di- 
vided into  hostile  parties.  With  all  these  tendencies  to  chaos  added  to 
the  right  of  the  nobles  to  make  war  against  the  king  (go87),  it  was  ev- 
ident that  a  downfall  was  near.  More  than  a  hundred  years  before  it 
took  place,  John  Casimir,  the  last  of  the  Vasa  dynasty,  clearly  pre- 
dicted a  dismemberment  of  Poland  by  Russia,  Austria,  and  the  House 
of  Brandenburg. 

6.  Kosciusko  was  one  of  the  Polish  heroes  who  aided  in  our  War  of 
Independence,  having  come  to  this  country  in  1777.  He  enioye<I  the 
friendship  of  Wsisiiington,  and  fought  with  distinction  in  the  battles  on 
the  Hudson  and  at  Yorktown.  After  his  release  from  his  Russian  prison, 
he  re-visited  the  United  States.  A  monument  at  West  Point  c(»mmem- 
orates  his  services.  He  refusetl  to  join  in  conspiracies  against  Russia, 
but  wrote  an  elo<iuent  letter  to  the  Em|>eror  Alexander  I.,  entreating 
him  to  grant  a  free  constitution  to  Poland.  He  died  at  Soleure,  iu 
Switzerland,  1817. 


CHAPTER  X. 


THE   BOURBONS    IN    FRANCE. 


ENRY  IV.  (A.  I).  1589-1610) 
the  first  of  the  royal  House  of 
Bourbon,  came  to  the  throne 
in  the  midst  of  a  civil  war. 
Though  the  nearest  heir  to  the 
monarchy,  he  was  only  eleventh 
cousin  of  the  last  king;  and,  as 
hereditary  leader  of  the  Hugue- 
nots, he  encountered  violent 
opposition  from  nearly  all  ad- 
herents of  the  old  church.  The 
League  (§484)  was  strong  in 
the  support  of  Philip  of  Spain, 
who  wanted  the  French  crown 
for  his  daughter,  and  who  had 
at  his  command  the  greatest 
general  and  the  finest  soldiery 
in  the  world.  Nevertheless, 
Henry  gained  a  brilliant  victory  over  the  forces  of  the 
League  at  Ivry,  and  his  generous  and  gallant  character 
drew  many  even  of  the  Catholic  nobles  to  his  side. 

612.    Paris  was  besieged  by  the  royal  forces,  but  Henry 

would   not  let   his   people    starve.      Food  was   carried   in, 

and  the  city  was  thus  enabled  to  await  the  arrival  of  the 

Spanish   army.      In    1593,    Henry  reconciled   himself  with 

(348) 


Prince  of  Condd. 


HENRY  IV,  AND  SULLY,  349 

the    Roman    Church,   and   soon    obtained   by  management 
what  lie  luid  been  unwiUing   to   gain   by  force.      Being  at 
length  victorious  over  all  his  enemies,  he  pro- 
claimed   universal    toleration    in    the    Edict   of  *  '^' 
Nantes,  and  thus  ended  the  religious  wars  of  a  third  of  a 
century. 

613.  Aided  by  his  great  minister,  Rosny,  duke  of  Sully, 
Henry  undertook  to  redeem  France  from  the  poverty  and 
misery  occasioned  by  so  many  years  of  misrule.  Under 
their  careful  management,  tillage,  trade,  and  fine  manu- 
factures soon  began  to  flourish,  and  the  people  enjoyed  a 
prosi^erity  such  as  neither  they  nor  their  fathers  could 
remember.  A  favorite  scheme  with  Henry  was  the  hum- 
bling of  the  House  of  Austria;  and  to  this  end  he  wished 
to  league  all  Europe  in  a  great  Christian  commonwealth,^ 
in  which  each  power  should  have  only  its  due  share  of 
importance,  and  disputes  should  be  settled  by  reason  rather 
than  by  arms.  As  a  first  contribution  toward  this  balance 
of  power,  he  resigned  the  French  claims  upon  Italy,  which 
had  been  the  cause  of  so  many  wars  (§§404,  408,  445). 

614.  But  on  the  eve  of  his  departure  for  the  Nether- 
lands, the  great  king  was  assassinated  by  a  frantic  Jesuit. 
His  queen,  Marie  de  Medici,  became  regent  for  her  son 
Louis  Xni.  (A.  D.  1 6 10 -1643),  who  was  then  only  nine 
years  old.  Herself  an  Italian,  and  ruled  by  Italian  favorites, 
the  queen  wholly  changed  the  policy  of  the  government. 
She  made  a  close  alliance  with  Spain,  marrying  her  son 
to  the  Spanish  infanta,  and  her  daughter  to  the  crown- 
prince,  afterwards  Philip  IV.  The  treasures,  which  Henry's 
good  management  had  collected,  were  squandered  upon 
her  worthless  favorites,  while  Sully  retired  from  the  council. 
When  he  was  sixteen  years  of  age,  Louis  took  the  govern- 
ment into  his  own  hands,  caused  Concini,  his  mother's 
chief  tool,  to  be  put  to  death,  and  called  some  of  his 
father's  old  councilors  about  him. 


5SO  MODERN  HISTORY, 

615.  The  great  Cardinal-minister,  Richelieu,^  was  now 
rising  into  power.  Like  Henry  IV.  and  Sully,  he  aimed 
to  abate  the  proud  ascendency  of  the  Hapsburgs;  and  to 
this  end  he  constantly  aided  the  Protestants  of  England, 
Holland,  and  Germany,  though,  for  political  reasons,  he 
made  war  against  those  of  France.  We  have  seen  that 
the  great  Huguenot  chiefs  had  made  themselves  almost 
independent  during  the  wars  of  the  League  (§483).  They 
coined  money  and  executed  justice  like  sovereign  princes; 
indeed,  the  inefficiency  of  the  last  of  the  Valois  had  made 
it  quite  necessary  that  some  strong  hand  should  repress  the 
robbery  and  violence  that  everywhere  prevailed.  France 
had  almost  fallen  apart  into  the  great  duchies  and  counties 
that  held   its   territories   in   the   time    of   Hugh    the   Great 

(§338)- 

616.  Richelieu  was  far  more  a  Frenchman  than  a  Roman 
cardinal.  He  put  down  the  feudal  chiefs,  but  he  had  no 
disposition  to  persecute  the  Huguenots.     He  besieged  and 

captured  Rochelle,  their  stronghold,  but  he 
■  ^  ^^  ^  ^  '  confirmed  the  people  in  the  free  exercise  of 
their  religion,  and  renewed  the  Edict  of  Nantes.  Other 
Huguenot  towns  submitted,  and  all  fortresses  not  needed 
for  the  defense  of  the  country  against  foreign  enemies  were 
ordered  to  be  leveled  with  the  ground. 

617.  Not  satisfied  with  ruling  France,  Richelieu  took  a 
leading  part  in  the  affairs  of  Europe.  In  the  Thirty  Years' 
War,  France  was  an  important  actor,  though  secretly  at 
first,  through  money  and  counsel  supplied  in  equal  measure 
to  the  Swedish  king;  and  by  the  peace  of  Westphalia  she 
was  confirmed  in  the  possession  of  Lorraine  and  Alsace, 
with  several  fortresses  on  the  upper  Rhine.  But  before 
this,  in  1643,  Richelieu  and  his  king  had  both  died,  and 
Louis  XIV.,  at  the  age  of  five  years,  had  come  to  the 
throne,  under  the  regency  of  his  mother,  Anne  of  Austria, 
and  her  chief  minister,  Cardinal  Maz'arin. 


THE  FRONDE,  351 


618.  We  come,  no>y,  to  the  greatest  era  of  the  French 
uionarihy  —  a  reign  of  seventy-two  years  (A.  I).  1643- 
17 15),  during  which  France  became  the  leader  of  the 
world  in  art,  literature,  and  social  refinement;  while  her 
king's  ambition  seemed  almost  to  threaten  his  absolute 
and  universal  dominion.  At  its  beginning,  Cond6*  was 
gaining  brilliant  victories  over  the  Spanish  forces  in  the 
Netherlands;  but  the  expenses  of  war  and  a  luxurious 
court  soon  drove  the  Parisians  into  a  civil  strife,  called 
the  Fronde,  which  raged  for  several  years. 

619.  Conde  thought  his  great  services  were  slighted  by 
the  regent,  and,  after  being  driven  from  Paris,  actually 
accepted  a  commission  from  the  king  of  Spain  to  lead 
those  armies  which  he  had  lately  conquered.  Mazarin,  on 
the  other  hand,  knew  little,  and  cared  less,  concerning 
the  laws  of  the  land  which  he  undertook  to  govern;  while 
he  disgusted  the  people  by  his  greed  for  gold.  He  was 
several  times  dismissed,  but  soon  recalled  to  office,  while 
the  young  king"*  and  his  mother,  hiding  in  a  suburb  of 
Paris,  often  went  cold  and  hungry,  owing  to  the  impossi- 
bility of  collecting  taxes.  The  Fronde  was  ended  in  1652, 
and  Mazarin  was  soon  reinstated. 

620.  The  war  in  the  Netherlands  favored  France,  and 
in  the  treaty  of  the  Pyrenees,  which  closed  it, 

Spain    gave    up   the   proud   preeminence  which  '  '  ^^' 

she  had  held  ever  since  the  days  of  Ferdinand  and  Isa- 
bella. It  was  agreed  that  the  French  embassador  should 
walk  before  the  Spanish  at  every  foreign  court  where  both 
countries  were  represented — a  precedence  which  Louis 
thought  so  important  that  he  was  ready  to  go  to  war  upon 
its  least  infringement. 

621.  Upon  the  death  of  Mazarin,  in  1661,  the  king,  who 
was  now  23  years  of  age,  announced  to  his  council  — 
•'For  the  future,  I  shall  be  my  own  prime  minister." 
He   at   once   undertook  the  actual   business  of  governing, 


352  MODERN  HISTORY. 


and,  though  fond  of  pleasure,  he  thenceforth  devoted  many 
hours  every  day  to  the  routine  of  affairs.  He  detected  the 
frauds  of  the  finance-minister,  Fouquet,  and  condemned 
him  to  a  dungeon  for  Hfe,  while  he  put  the  honest  Colbert^ 
in  the  vacant  place.  Colbert  was  able  to  lighten  the  taxes, 
and  yet  keep  the  king's  treasury  full,  by  encouraging  all 
useful  industries  and,  thus,  multiplying  sources  of  wealth. 

622.  Louis  had  married  a  Spanish  princess,  and,  upon 
her  father's  death,  in  1665,  he  marched  into  the  Nether- 
lands, declaring  that  the  ten  provinces,  with  Luxemburg 
and  Franche  Comte,  belonged,  of  right,  to  her.  This 
bold  movement  was  checked  by  a  triple  alliance  of  En- 
gland, Holland,  and  Sweden,  which  forced  Louis  to  sign 
the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle.  His  wrath  was  chiefly  ex- 
cited by  the  little  republic  of  Holland,  which  had  wrested 
her  own  freedom  from  the  iron  hand  of  Spain,  and  now 
was  able  to  protect  her  late  oppressor. 

623.  He  first  bribed  England  and  Sweden  to  withdraw 
from  the  alliance;  then,  with  his  army  of  200,000  men,  he 
marched  into  the  States,  occupied  Guelders,  Utrecht,  and 
Overyssel,  and  encamped  within  sight  of  Amsterdam.  The 
Dutch  stood  alone  against  all  the  world,  but  the  temper 
which  had  been  proved  in  eighty  years'  war  with  Spain 
was  not  likely  to  yield  to  the  groundless  demands  of 
France.  The  young  Prince  of  Orange,  now  at  the  head 
of  affairs,  proposed  that  in  the  last  extremity  they  should 
give  back  Holland  to  the  sea,  and,  embarking  with  wives 
and  children  on  their  immense  merchant  fleet,  seek  new 
homes  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  globe. 

624.  The  dykes  were  cut  near  Amsterdam;  the  ocean 
flowed  over  the  fertile  fields,  and  the  fleet  was  able  to 
surround  and  defend  the  capital.  Spain  and  the  empire 
soon  sent  aid  to  the  States,  and  the  war  became  general. 
On  the  Rhine  and  in  the  Mediterranean,  the  French 
were  still  victorious;    and  when  peace  was  finally  made  at 


LOUIS  XIW   OF  FRANCE,  353 

Nimeguen,  A.  D.  1678,  the  glory  of  the  "Grand  Monarch" 
was  at  its  height.  In  contempt  of  his  treaty,  he  went  on 
*' reuniting"  territories,  on  the  pretense  that  they  had  once 
belonged  to  the  dominion  of  the  Franks!  Among  the  rest, 
the  free  imperial  city  of  Strasburg  was  thus  appropriated, 
and  the  skill  of  Vauban,  the  famous  military  engineer, 
soon  made  it  a  fortress  of  surpassing  strength. 

625.  After  the  death  of  his  Spanish  queen,  Louis  mar- 
ried Madame  de  Maintenon,  a  woman  of  good  sense,  who 
wrought  a  great  reformation  in  the  court.  Unhappily  the 
king  conceived  the  idea  that  he  could  atone  for  his  sins 
by  persecuting  his  Protestant  subjects.  The  Huguenots, 
though  no  longer  a  political  party  (§§478,  615),  numbered 
several  millions,  and  were  now  the  most  useful  and  orderly 
class  in  France.  Colbert  had  especially  encouraged  them 
on  account  of  their  skilled  industries;  but  Colbert  was 
now  dead.  The  war-minister,  Louvois,  by  the  king's  order, 
quartered  troops  of  dragoons  in  all  the  provinces,  who 
abused  the  defenseless   people  at  their  will. 

626.  This  ''dragonnade"  was  followed  by  the  revocation 
of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  (§612).  The  churches  of  the 
Huguenots  were  ordered  to  be  demolished,  their  ministers 
exiled,  their  children  deprived  of  all  instruction  save  that 
of  the  parish  priest.  Those  who  resisted  the  decree  were 
shot  without  mercy.  Half  a  million  of  the  persecuted 
people  found  means  of  escaping.  Other  countries,  in 
Europe  and  America,  gained  what  France  lost,  and  most 
of  them  still  bear  marks  of  the  improvements  they  owe  to 
the  exiled  Huguenots. 

627.  Perceiving  the  French  king's  blunder,  his  great 
enemy,  the  Prince  of  Orange,  who  was  now  king  of  En- 
gland (§553),  stirred  up  a  grand  alliance  against  him.  It 
comprised  the  emperor  and  the  chief  German  states,  with 
England,  Holland,  Sweden,  Spain,  and  Savoy.  The  war, 
which   soon    broke   out,  was   conducted  with    the   greatest 

Hist.  —23. 


354  MODERN  HISTORY. 

brutality  by  the  French  on  the  Rhine.  Louis  ordered  his 
generals  to  burn  every  village  which  they  could  not  garri- 
son; and  100,000  people  were  thus  made  homeless  in  a  few 
weeks.  His  own  subjects  were  suffering  no  less  cruelly  from 
starvation,  owing  to  the  ruinous  wastes  of  war.  At  length, 
ministers  from  all  the  European  nations  met  at  Ryswick, 
in  Holland,  and,  in  1697,  concluded  a  treaty  of  peace. 

628.  It  was  soon  broken  by  the  "War  of  the  Spanish 
Succession,"  which  for  thirteen  years  taxed  the  energies 
of  Europe,  and  extended  all  around  the  globe.  Charles 
H.  of  Spain  died  in  1700,  leaving  no  children,  but  be- 
queathing all  his  dominions  to  Philip  of  Anjou,  grandson 
of  Louis  XIV.  Now  it  happened  that  the  Emperor  Leo- 
pold was  just  as  nearly  related  to  the  Spanish  family  as 
was  the  King  of  France  (see  Table,  p.  283).  In  alliance 
with  England  and  Holland,  he  proclaimed  his  second  son, 
the  archduke  Charles,  king  of  Spain.  The  English  Duke 
of  Marlborough  and  Prince  Eugene  of  Savoy  gained 
splendid  victories  over  the  French  lat  Blenheim,  Ramillies, 
Oudenarde,  and  Malplaquet.  England  became  mistress  of 
Gibraltar,  the  strongest  fortress  in  the  world,  and  of  the 
island  of  Minorca,  a  second  key  to  the  Mediterranean. 

629.  ''Louis  the  Great"  was  at  length  completely  hum- 
bled. His  people  were  starving,  while  the  wealth  and  life- 
blood  of  his  kingdom  were  poured  out  on  foreign  battle- 
fields. Year  after  year  he  begged  for  peace,  offering  larger 
and  larger  concessions,  but  the  allies  did  not  trust  him, 
and  the  war  went  on.  At  length,  in  171 1,  the  emperor 
Joseph  died,  and  his  brother  Charles  was  elected  to  suc- 
ceed him.  The  allies  had  gone  to  war  to  prevent  Bourbon 
supremacy  in  Europe,  but  they  had  no  mind  to  see  the 
head  of  the  Hapsburgs  ruling  Spain,  Italy,  and  the  empire, 
as  in  the  days  of  Charles  V.  (§§424,  444). 

630.  Eighty  embassadors  of  the  several  powers  now  met 
those  of  France  at  Utrecht,  in  Holland  (A.  D.  17 13),  and, 


THE   MISSISSIPPI  SCHEME.  355 

after  more  than  a  year's  deliberation,  articles  of  peace  were 
signed.  The  next  year,  a  conference  at  Rastadt  settled  the 
points  in  dispute  between  France  and  the  empire.  l*hilip 
V.  was  recognized  as  king  of  Spain  and  the  Indies,  but 
all  the  Spanish  possessions  in  Italy  and  the  Netherlands 
were  ceded  to  Charles  VI. 

631.  Louis  XIV.  died  in  17 15,  a  weary  old  man,  be- 
reaved of  all  his  children  and  most  of  his  grandchildren, 
and  disappointed  in  that  glory  which  had  been  the  idol 
of  his  life.  With  his  last  breath  he  charged  his  great- 
grandson  and  successor  to  undo  the  mischiefs  he  himself 
had  done,  and  be  content  with  his  rightful  dominions. 

632.  The  age  of  Louis  XIV.  was  the  most  brilliant  period 
in  French  literature.  The  tragedies  of  Corneille  and  Racine, 
the  comedies  of  Moliere,  the  ''Letters"  and  "Thoughts" 
of  Pascal,  the  fables  of  La  Fontaine,  the  sermons  of  Bossuet, 
Bourdaloue,  Fenelon,  and  Massillon,  are  unsurpassed  in 
their  different  kinds  of  excellence.  The  good  Fenelon  was 
tutor  to  the  younger  dauphin,  and  wrote  the  story  of 
Telem'achus  for  the  benefit  of  his  pupil. 

633.  Louis  XV.^'^'A.  D.  17 15- 1774)  was  only  five  years 
old  at  his  accession,  and  the  regency  was  bestowed  on  the 
Duke  of  Orleans,  a  nephew  of  the  late  king.  France  was 
buried  in  debts,  and  the  regent  gladly  consented  to  a 
scheme  of  Law,  a  Scotch  banker,  to  pay  the  bondholders 
with  paper  money,  representing  shares  in  the  "Mississippi 
Company."  A  fever  for  speculation  now  began  to  rage. 
The  less  people  knew,  the  more  they  imagined  concerning 
the  wealth  of  the  North  American  continent :  lords,  ladies, 
princes,  and  prelates  crowded  to  buy  shares,  and  the  public 
debt  vanished  as  by  magic.  But  suddenly  it  was  found 
that    there   was  no   real    money   to    meet    these 

paper  promises  to  pay,  and  thousands  of  fancied 
millionaires  awoke  to  beggary.     During  the  excitement,  a 
company  of  emigrants  founded,  the  city  of  Neiv  Orleans^  so 


356  MODERN  HISTORY. 

named  in  honor  of  the  regent,  and  this  was  the  only  last- 
ing result  of  the  "Mississippi  Scheme." 

634.  Louis  married  Maria  Leczinska,  daughter  of  an 
exiled  king  of  Poland,  and,  in  1733,  undertook  the  ''War 
of  the  Polish  Succession,"  in  a  vain  attempt  to  restore  him 
to  the  throne.  Still  more  important  was  the  War  of  the 
Austrian  Succession,  in  which  all  Europe  was  engaged, 
and  which  extended  to  the  colonies  in  Asia  and  America. 
France  gained  nothing  by  it,  while  her  already  hopeless 
debt  was  increased  by  $250,000,000.  Even  the  gay  and 
thoughtless  courtiers  of  Louis  XV.  felt  that  they  were 
dancing  on  the  edge  of  a  precipice.  The  fair  promise  of 
the  king's  youth  had  been  broken  by  selfish  dissipation: 
the  control  of  his  kingdom  rested  now  in  the  hands  of  the 
Marchioness  de  Pompadour,  a  bad  though  tolerably  bright 
woman,  who  was  persuaded  by  the  flatteries  of  Maria 
Theresa  to  plunge  that  exhausted  kingdom  into  a  seven 
years'  war  with  Prussia.  The  latter  had  England  for  an 
ally,  while  the  three  Bourbon  kingdoms  of  France,  Spain, 
and  Naples  united  in  a  "Family  Compact." 

635.  The  war  began  in  America.  France  claimed  the 
entire  basins  of  the  Mississippi  and  St.  Lawrence,  and 
attempted  to  guard  them  by  a  chain  of  forts  reaching  from 
Quebec  to  New  Orleans.  The  kings  of  England,  on  the 
other  hand,  had  given  charters  for  lands  running  west- 
ward from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific;  and  collisions  soon 
occurred  on  the  head-waters  of  the  Ohio.''  In  America  the 
contest  was  known  as  the  French  and  Indian  War,  because 
the  savage  allies  of  the  French  often  attacked  English 
settlements,  burned  their  villages,  and  either  dragged  away 
mothers  and  children  through  the  snow,  or  murdered  all 
the  settlers  with  their  tomahawks.  This  horrid  warfare 
was  successful  at  first,  but,  in  the  end,  the  forts  on  the 
Ohio  and  St.  Lawrence  were  taken  by  the  English.  In 
1760,  General  Wolfe,  with  a  small  British  force,  scaled  the 


I.OXriS  XVI.    OF   FRAXCF.  357 


rugged    Heights   of  Abraham,    and    captured    Quebc* .    tlic 
strongest  natural  fortress  on  the  western  continent. 

636.  The  treaty  of  Paris,  1763,  left  all  boundaries  in 
lCuroi)e  unchanged,  but  deprived  France  of  her  whole 
American  dominion.  The  northern  part  became  British 
America^  while  the  Mississippi  Valley  was  ceded  to  Spain, 
10  pay  for  her  losses  by  the  Family  Compact. 

637.  Louis  XV.  died  in  1774,  leaving  a  starving  i)eople 
and  a  treasury  in  hopeless  ruin.  His  grandson,  Louis 
XVL,  was  a  young  man  of  the  best  intentions,  but  of  no 
great  energy  of  mind  or  will.  He  had  married  the  Austrian 
archduchess,  .Marie  Antoinette,*  who,  though  beautiful  and 
kind-hearted,  was  not  a  favorite  with  the  peoi)le.  She  was 
known  to  share  the  despotic  temper  of  the  Hapsburgs, 
and  to  urge  her  husband  to  arbitrary  measures. 

638.  (treat  sympathy  was  felt  in  France  for  the  Ameri- 
cans in  their  struggle  for  independence  (§§  650-652),  and 
the   king  was  reluctantly   compelled   to   declare 

war  against  Great  Britain.     It  was  a  dangerous 
step,  for,  great  as  were   the   grievances  of  the  Americans, 
the  French,  at  home,   had   infinitely  more  to  complain  of, 
and  naturally  began  to  think  of  asserting  their  rights. 

639.  Several  finance-ministers®  tried,  in  turn,  to  diminish 
the  national  debt,  and  relieve  the  general  poverty;  but 
abuses  were  too  deeply  rooted  in  the  constitution  of  the 
state.  The  nobles  and  clergy,  who  owned  two-thirds  of 
all  the  land  in  France,  paid  no  taxes;  and  so  the  whole 
burden  of  the  government  rested  on  those  who  had  no 
voice  in  making  or  executing  the  laws.  At  length,  A.  D. 
1789,  the  States-general  were  called,  for  the  first  time  in 
175  years,  and  with  their  meeting,  at  Versailles,  the  great 
French  Revolution  may  be  said  to  have  begun. 

Read  Dyer's  Modern  Europe;  Martin's  History  of  France ;  Weiss's 
History  of  the  French  Refugees;  Bancroft's  History  of  the  United 
States. 


358 


MODERN  HISTORY, 


NOTES. 

1.  The  great  Confederation  planned  by  Henry  was  to  consist  of  fifteen 
states,  in  three  groups:  (1)  Six  Elective  Monarchies:  the  Empire,  the  States 
of  the  Church,  Venice,  Hungary,  Bohemia,  and  Poland;  (2)  Six  Heredi- 
tary Monarchies:  France,  Spain,  Great  Britain,  Denmark,  Sweden,  and 
Lorabardy— the  last  to  be  formed  of  the  two  duchies  of  Savoy  and  Mi- 
lan; (3)  Three  Federal  Republics:  Switzerland,  the  Netherlands,  and  a 
Confederation  of  Italian  states.  The  Czar  of  Muscovy — afterwards  to 
become  Emperor  of  Russia  (^589,  597),  was  considered  as  belonging  rather 
to  Asia  than  Europe,  but  he  could  be  admitted  to  the  Commonwealth 
if  he  desired  it.  His  own  age  and  later  ones  poured  great  contempt  on 
what  they  called  tlie  visionary  schemes  of  Henry  IV. ;  but  it  neverthe- 
less contained  the  essential  principle  of  international  law;  and  the 
more  human  reason  prevails  over  brutal  impulses,  the  nearer  the  world 
will  come  to  a  realization  of  the  spirit  of  his  plan. 

Henry  IV.  was,  of  all  their  monarchs,  the  greatest  favorite  with  the 
F'rench.  His  generous  confidence  and  forgetfulness  of  injuries  soon 
quieted  the  dissensions  in  his  kingdom;  his  valor  and  his  gay  good 
humor  made  him  the  idol  of  his  armies.  At  Ivry  he  prefaced  the 
word  of  command  with  this  brief  address:  "Fellow-soldiers,  you  are 
Frenchmen;  behold  the  enemy!  It  you  lose  sight  of  your  ensigns,  fol- 
low my  phime;  you  will  always  find  it  on  the  high  road  to  honor!" 
Macauiay  has  commemorated  the  incident  in  a  spirited  ballad.  It  was 
by  the  treaty  of  Vervins  in  1598,  that  Henry  made  peace  with  Spain. 
Philip  II.,  aged,  infirm,  and  straitened  in  resources  (g525),  restored  to 
France  all  his  conquests  excepting  the  fortress  of  Cam  bray. 

2.  Armand  Jean  du  Plessis,  afterwards  Cardinal  Richelieu,  was  the' 
ablest  and  most  celebrated  of  French  prime  ministers.  At  the  early 
age  of  22  he  obtained  the  bishopric  of  Lugon,  chiefly  by  his  address  and 
ready  wit  in  asking  the  Pope  for  it,  though  it  had  been  for  some  time 
in  his  family.  In  1614,  he  entered  the  service  of  Marie  de'  Medici,  and 
used  his  influence  in  making  peace  between  her  and  her  son.  In  1622, 
he  became  cardinal,  and  in  1624  a  member  of  the  royal  council,  in  which 
he  speedily  rose  to  the  head.  His  policy,  clearly  conceived  and  firmly 
pursued,  aroused  the  bitter  opposition  of  the  Queen -mother,  but  she 
was  exiled  in  1630,  and  from  that  time  till  his  death,  Richelieu  ruled 
France.  In  1635  he  founded  the  French  Academy  or  40  members,  the 
most  dignified  and  illustrious  of  literary  institutions— the  supreme 
authority  in  all  that  relates  to  the  French  language  and  literature.  Al- 
most the  only  weakness  of  the  great  statesman  was  his  fancying  him- 
self a  poet.  Richelieu  died  in  December,  1642,  five  months  before  the 
king,  Louis  XIII. 

3.  For  the  connection  of  Cond6  with  the  Bourbons  see  §  478  and  note. 

4.  XjOuIs  XIV.,  called  the  Great,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Louis  XIII. 
and  Anne  of  Austria,  daughter  of  Philip  III.  of  Spain.  The  hardships 
which  he  suflered  in  his  childhood  made  him  only  the  more  determined 
to  use  his  power  absolutely  when  he  should  obtain  it.  The  war  of  the 
Fronde  had  for  its  chief  mover  the  Cardinal  de  Retz,  a  restless  and 
ambitious  adventurer;  but  many  great  nobles  and  even  fine  ladies  of 
the  court  took  an  active  part  in  it.  Most  important  of  the  latter  was 
Mademoiselle  de  Montpensier,  the  king's  own  cousin,  sometimes  called 
"  the  Great  Mademoiselle,"  and  the  richest  heiress  in  France.  She  gained 
a  battle  for  the  Prince  of  Cond6  by  directing  the  cannon  of  the  Bastille 
with  her  own  hands  against  the  forces  of  the  king.  In  fulfillment  of 
the  Treaty  of  the  Pyrenees,  Louis  XIV.  married  his  cousin,  Maria  Theresa, 
daughter  of  Philip  IV.  of  Spain. 

5.  Jean  Baptiste  Colbert  was  born  at  Rheims,  1619,  in  comparatively 
humble  circumstances.  His  early  travels  made  him  acquainted  with 
many  parts  of  France,  and  he  studied  especially  the  state  of  trade  and 
the  means  by  which  it  could  be  improved.  Cardinal  Mazarin,  who  had 
perceived  his  merits  and  employed  him  in  the  care  of  his  own  estates, 
recommended  him  to  the  confidence  of  Louis  XIV.;  and,  as  controller 
general  of  finances,  he  became  the  "  founder  of  commerce  and  protector 


NOTES,  359 


of  all  thcarU."    Ho  olthor  originated  or  greatly  extoiuloti  the  manufao* 

tures  of  kIuss,  silk,  mul  wcmIumk;  cKtabllHiKMi  a  ('IihiuImt  of  ("oMiincrce, 
fomuH'ttMi  tlio  MtHllifrrancan  witli  the  Atlantit*  by  thr  (atml  <»f  Ijiiikuc- 
doc;  fharti'ivd  rniupaitlos  for  tra<le  with  tlu' Ka-^t  nnd  West  IikMch,  and 
platitiHl  r<»l«)nies  In  Canada.  .\s  niiiiiKtorof  marine,  \\v  i'sial)lish(>d  groat 
naval  arsenals  at  Toulon,  Hrest,  Havre,  and  Dunkirk,  and  kejtt  the 
lleets  In  the  highest  stJite  of  eflleleney.  Himself  a  menil>er  of  the  Frcncli 
Acmlomy,  he  foundetl  two  othorn,  of  InsorlntlonK  and  of  JSclence«,  as  well 
as  ail  Astronomical  Otwservatory.    He  died  in  otlice,  168:i. 

6.  Louis  XV.  Is  said  to  have  been  remarkable  in  his  childhood  for 
purity  and  loveliness.  But  the  court  of  the  regent  was  a  K<'eno  (»f 
scandalous  corruption,  and  the  chanicter  of  the  young  king  waw  not 
strtmg  enough  to  withstand  evil  influences.  In  IT'A  though  only  l.'i 
years  old,  he  was  dechired  of  age,  and,  as  the  Regent  trorleans  died 
about  the  same  time,  the  Duke  of  Hourbon  became  prime  minister. 
Three  years  later,  he  wjvs  succeeded  by  tin-  excellent  Cardinal  Fleury, 
who  had  been  I^ouis's  precentor  and  possessed  his  entire  confidence. 
Under  his  prudent  and  neaceiul  manajienuMit,  some  (h-gree  of  order  and 
pi*osperity  returne<l  lo  France.  Still  the  tlecline  of  the  monarcliy  wiw 
so  manifest,  that  there  was  a  standing  jest  at  court:  "After  us,  the  Del- 
uge." Cardinal  Fleury  died  in  llA.i,  and  the  king,  in  imitation  of  his 
predecessor,  resolveil  to  be  his  own  prime  minister  (g621).  But  his  de- 
votion to  business  husted  only  Ave  yeai-s,  and.  In  1748,  abandoning  him- 
self to  dissipation,  he  left  tlie  interests  of  his  people  to  the  reckless 
hands  of  whoever  might  be  the  court  favorite  of  the  hour. 

The  disasters  of  the  Seven  Years'  War,  followed  by  greatly  increased 
taxation,  destroyeti  the  king's  popularity,  and,  to  crown  all,  he  lncrea><ed 
his  private  fortune  by  speculating  In  grain  and  in  government  bonds, 
thus  enriching  himself  by  the  st<\rvatlon  of  his  neople.  In  his  youth 
he  had  been  called  "Louis  the  Well  Beloved,"  but  his  successor  now 
began  to  be  called  "  Louis  the  Desired." 

7.  It  was  in  the  beginning  of  this  contest  that  Washington,  then  21 
years  of  age,  first  distinguished  himself  by  bearing  a  message  from  Gov. 
Dinwiddle,  of  Virginia,  to  the  French  commandant  on  the  Alleghany. 
The  next  year  he  Ted  a  party  against  Fort  du  Quesne  (kane),  now  Pitts- 
burg; but,  being  insufficiently  supported  by  the  colonies,  he  had  to  re- 
tire, leaving  the  whole  Ohio  basin  four  years  longer  to  the  French. 

8.  Marie  Antoinette,  daughter  of  Maria  Theresa  (^isWri-^JO.",,  «K«»i,  and 
the  Emperor  Francis  I.  was  only  fifteen  years  of  age  when  her  marriage 
with  the  dauphin  i)laced  her  at  the  head  of  the  brilliant  society  of  Paris. 
The  liveliness  and  freedom  of  her  manners  offended  the  stately  tradi- 
tions of  roval  etiquette,  anil  it  is  even  said  that  her  French  tutor  had 
inspire^l  her  with  contempt  for  the  manners  of  her  future  subjects,  that 
he  might  increase  his  own  importance.  The  arbitrary  temper  which 
she  had  inherited  from  her  mother  had  not  time  to  be  corrected  by 
experience  before  the  storm  of  the  Revolution  buret  upon  her.  But 
whatever  were  her  youthful  mistakes,  she  met  adversity  with  noble 
firmness,  thinking  only  of  her  husband  and  children,  and  command- 
ing some  respect  even  from  her  brutal  jailors  by  her  firm  and  queenly 
dignity.    See  gg  680-685. 

9.  The  most  popular  of  these  was  Jacques  Necker,  a  wealthy  Swiss 
banker,  who,  in  1777,  became  director-general  of  French  finances.  He 
first  published  an  annual  account  of  the  revenue  and  expenses  of  the 
government,  and  thus  Inspired  confidence,  while  by  order  and  economy 
he  was  able  to  diminish  the  taxes.  Though  In  great  favor  with  the 
people,  he  had  many  enemies  at  court,  and,  1781,  he  resigned  his  office 
and  retire<l  to  Switzerland.  His  recall,  in  1788,  wjvs  followed  by  an  im- 
mediate rise  of  ;J0  percent  in  the  public  funds.  In  17W*,  a  note  from  the 
king  ordered  him  to  leave* the  king<lom  privately,  and  it  w>is  the  rage 
of  the  mob  at  his  dismisstil  that  le<l  to  the  storming  of  the  Bastille 
(§680).  Ix>uis  was  forced  to  recall  Necker,  who  re-entered  Paris  ten  days 
after  his  departure,  and  was  recelve<l  with  unlx)unded  enthusiasm.  The 
next  year  he  resigned  his  office  and  passed  the  rest  of  his  life  in  studi- 
ous retiremeut  at  Coppet,  in  Switzerland.  Mme.  de  Sta^l,  the  brilliant 
authoress,  was  his  daughter. 


CHAPTER    XT. 


GREAT    BRITAIN    UNDER    THE   HOUSE   OF    BRUNSWICK. 


EORGE   LEWIS,   elector  of  Han- 
over,* became  king  of  England, 
in  1 7 14,  by  an  act  of  Parliament, 
which  excluded    all   papists  from 
the   throne.     He   naturally  favored 
the  Whigs,   to  whom    he  owed   his 
crown  ;^  while  the  Tories,    or  Jaco- 
bites, as  they  were  now  called,  in- 
clined   to    Prince    James    (§§552, 
555),  whom  his  sister.  Queen  Anne, 
would    gladly   have    named   as   her 
successor.    The  prince  invaded  Scot- 
land, with  a  small  French  force,  the 
next  year,  but  without  success;  and, 
after  the  death  of  Louis  XIV.,  the 
Regent   (§633)   made  a   close   alli- 
ance with    England,    Holland,    and 
the  Empire,  to  keep  the  peace  of 
Europe.      The    Stuarts,    driven    from    France,    kept    up   a 
cheerless    show  of  royalty   in    their  poverty-stricken  court 
at   Rome. 


A  Grenadier. 


*See  Table,  p.  241.  The  electorate  of  Hanover  was  conferred,  in 
1692,  on  the  father  of  George  I.,  a  duke  of  Brunswick-Luneburg, 
who  married  a  daughter  of  Frederic,  elector-palatine,  and  the  En- 
glish princess,  Elizabeth.  The  House  of  Brunswick  was  one  of  the 
oldest  and  most  powerful  in  Germany,  being  a  branch  of  the  Guelf 
family  (2363),  whose  estates,  in  the  twelfth  century,  extended  from 
the  Danube  to  the  Baltic. 
(360) 


HANOVERIANS  AND   STUARTS. 


641.  George  I.  felt  and  acted  more  as  a  German  prince 
than  as  a  British  king,  much  to  the  displeasure  of  his  new 
subjects.  His  reign  was  marked  by  many  wild  specula- 
tions in  finance,  among  them  the  "South  Sea  Bubble," 
which  closely  resembled  the  Mississippi  scheme  in  France 
(§633).  When  the  crash  came,  bringing  poverty  to  a 
multitude  of  paper-millionaires,  a  strong  reliction  set  in,  and 
Robert  Walpole,^a  sensible  country  squire,  wlio  had  opposed 
the  scheme  from  the  first,  was  placed  at  tlic  head  of  the 
government,  a  position  which  he  held  twenty-one  years. 

642.  George  I.  died  in  Hanover,  1727,  and  his  son, 
George  H.,  became  king.  Under  Walpole's  thrifty  ad- 
ministration, the  country  rapidly  advanced  in  industry 
and  wealth.  In  the  "War  of  the  Austrian  Succession" 
(§§602-605),  England  was  the  steadfast  friend  of  Maria 
Theresa.  The  king  and  his  son  were  both  present  in  the 
battle  of  Dettingen,  1743,  by  which  the  French  were  driven 
out  of  northern  Germany. 

643.  The  last  attempt  of  the  Stuarts  to  regain  the  Brit- 
ish throne  was  led  by  the  "Young  Pretender,"  Charles 
Edward,  son  of  James  Francis,  who   invaded   Scotland   in 

1745.  His  brave  and  gallant  bearing  attracted  many  young 
Scots:  Edinburgh  was  taken  by  surprise,  and  a  grand  ball 
was  given  at  the  palace  in  honor  of  King  James  the 
Eighth.  A  substantial  victory,  at  Prestonpans,  gave  the 
Pretender  the  cannon  which  he  needed;  the  French 
government,  now  believing  in«  his  certain  success,  sent 
arms  and  money,  and  he  boldly  invaded  England.  But 
the  English,  however  little  they  loved  their  dull  German 
king,  dearly  loved  the  prosperity  which  they  had  begun  to 
enjoy,  and  felt  no  obligation  to  risk  all  for  the  Stuarts. 
Few  joined  the  prince,  while  the  superior  forces  of  the 
Hanoverians  began  to  close  around  him,  and  he  retreated 
to    Scotland.       He    was    finally   defeated    at    Culloden,    in 

1746,  and  escaped  beyond  the  seas. 


362  MODERN  HISTORY. 

644.  Several  colonies  were  founded  during  this  reign. 
In  honor  of  the  king,  Gen.  Oglethorpe^  gave  the  name  of 
Georgia  to  his  settlement  on  the  Savannah  River,  which 
he  had  planted  chiefly  to  provide  homes  for  orphans,  and 
for  refugees  for  conscience'  sake.  The  efforts  of  the  Ohio 
Company  to  settle  lands  west  of  the  Alleghanies,  led  to  a 
collision  with  the  French.  In  an  attempt  to  capture  Fort 
Duquesne,  Gen.  Braddock  and  his  British  regulars  were 
defeated  by  Indians,  and  only  saved  from  utter  destruc- 
tion by  the  cool  bravery  of  Washington.  The  fort  was 
subsequently  abandoned  by  the  French,  and  the  P^nglish 
renamed  it  Fort  Pitt^  in  honor  of  the  firm  friend  of 
America,  William  Pitt.  The  next  year  forts  Niagara  and 
Ticonderoga,  and  the  yet  more  important  fortress  of 
Quebec,   were   also   taken   by  the   British. 

645.  These  colonial  contests  were  part  of  the  Seven 
Years'  War,  to  which  —  or  rather  to  the  energetic  policy 
of  Mr.  Pitf*— three  great  empires  may  trace  their  rise. 
British  conquests  from  the  French  in  Hindustan  laid  the 
foundations  of  the  vast  Indian  Empire;  the  share  taken 
by  the  thirteen  American  colonies  in  the  war  led  to  the 
independence  of  the  United  States;  and,  by  enabling 
Prussia  at  a  most  critical  moment  to  withstand  the  hos- 
tility of  all  continental  Europe,  the  rise  of  the  present 
German  Empire  may  have  been  rendered  possible.  (§606). 

646.  George  III.  (A.  D.  1760- 1820)  succeeded  his 
grandfather  while  the  Seven  Years'  War  was  in  progress. 
It  was  closed  by  the  treaty  of  Paris,  1763,  in  which 
France  ceded  to  England  all  that  is  now  British  America, 
while  Spain  gave  up  Florida  in  exchange  for  Havana 
and  the  Philippine  Islands,  which  had  been  taken  by  the 
English. 

647.  The  early  years  of  this  reign  were  marked  by  a 
wonderful  increase  in  the  power  of  newspapers.  John 
Wilkes,    in    his   journal,    the   North    Brito7i,    attacked    the 


KE/GN  OF  GKOKCE    ///.  363 

policy  of  the  government ;  and  the  king's  favorite  minister, 
the  Earl  of  Bute,  was  compelled  to  resign.  Wilkes  was 
imprisoned  for  his  boldness ;  but  this  despotic  action  only 
brought  more  clearly  to  light  the  need  of  a  free  press  for 
the  security  of  a  free  government;  and,  thus,  an  important 
step  in  constitutional  liberty  was  gained.  The  London  Times 
was  established  January  i,  1788. 

648.  The  king,  though  well-meaning,  was  obstinate  and 
narrow-minded;  and  his  subjects,  both  at  home  and  in  the 
colonics,  had  to  look  well  to  their  rights.  The  French 
and  Indian  War  had  added  immensely  to  British  posses- 
sions,-but  it  had  also  added  to  the  public  debt;  and  it 
was  now  proposed  to  tax  the  three  kingdoms  and  the 
colonies  alike  to  meet  the  expense.  This  was  quite  right 
as  far  as  the  British  people  at  home  were  concerned,  for 
the  tax  was  levied  by  their  own  representatives;  but  the 
colonists  had  no  seats  in  Parliament;  and  as  Englishmen 
they  claimed  their  rights,  conceded  as  long  ago  as  the 
reign  of  Edward  I.,  in  refusing  to  pay  a  tax  which  they 
had  no  share  in  imposing. 

649.  Pitt,  the  Great  Commoner,  declared,  in  parliament, 
that  the  colonists  were  right;  but  the  king  hated  Pitt, 
whose  ill-health,  moreover,  withdrew  him,  about  this  time, 
from  public  affairs,  so  that  the  Americans  lost  this  pow- 
erful friend  at  court.  Lord  North's  ministry 
repealed  all  taxes,  excepting  that  of  three  pence  '  '^^°' 
a  pound  upon  tea.  But  it  was  the  principle,  not  the 
pence,  that  the  colonists  were  contendi4ig  for.  Most  of 
the  tea-ships  were  sent  back  to  England  with  their  cargoes 
untouched;  while  the  Bostonians,  in  their  excitement,  dis- 
charged several  shiploads  into  their  harbor. 

650.  The  American  Revolution.  —  A  British  army 
was  now  sent  over,  and  the  war  began  with  a  skirmish 
at  Lexington,  Massachusetts,  April,  1775,  in  which  the 
•* red-coats"  were   put  to  flight.     In  the  Batde  of  Bunker 


364  MODERN  HISTORY. 

Hill,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Americans  were  dislodged 
from  their  position ;  but  their  valiant  resistance  had  amazed 
their  opponents,  and  commanded  new  respect  for  colonial 
character.  A  congress  of  all  the  colonies  had  now  met  in 
Philadelphia  to  take  measures  for  the  common  defense ; 
and  George  Washington  became  general-in-chief  of  the 
American  forces. 

651.  The  colonists  had  desired  nothing  more  than  their 
just  rights  as  British  subjects,  but  the  king's  harshness 
compelled  them  to  go  farther,  and,  in  July,  1776,  the 
Declaration  of  Independence  was  signed  at  Philadelphia. 
During  that  summer  the  British,  under  Lord  Howe,  cap- 
tured New  York,  which  they  kept  until  the  end  of  the 
war.  The  next  year  Philadelphia,  too,  fell  into  their 
hands,  though  Washington  earnestly  tried  to  save  it  by 
the  battle  of  the  Brandywine.  The  winter  which  followed 
was  the  hardest  period  of  all  to  the  colonists;  and  the 
struggle  of  the  weakest  nation  in  the  world  against  the 
strongest  seemed  utterly  desperate. 

652.  Nevertheless,  the  tide  had  already  turned  in  favor 
of  American  independence.  Burgoyne,  descending  with  a 
fresh  army  from  Canada  to  join  Lord  Howe,  was  defeated 

near    Saratoga    and    surrendered    his    whole 

October,  1777.  ■  ^       ■  -y  r^ 

army  with  its  cannon  and  treasures  to  Gen- 
eral Gates.  France,  Spain,  and  Holland  soon  made 
friendly  treaties  with  the  United  States,  and  the  fleets  of 
all  three  nations  attacked  British  ships  and  settlements  in 
all  parts  of  the  globe.  The  main  actions  of  the  following 
years  were  in  the  southern  states;  and,  in  October,  1781, 
the  war  was  virtually  ended  by  the  surrender  of  Lord 
Cornwallis,  with  his  whole  command,  at  Yorktown,  in 
Virginia.  In  September,  1783,  a  treaty  of  peace  was 
signed  at  Versailles,  by  which  George  HI.  acknowledged 
the  independence  of  his  late  colonies,  now  the  United 
States  of  America. 


THE  PRINCE  REGENT,  365 


653.  England  took  a  leading  part  in  the  wars  following 
the  French  Revolution,  but  these  will  be  described  in 
another  connection  (Ch.  XIII).  It  is  no  wonder  that  the 
excitements  and  responsibilities  of  that  eventful  time  over- 
came   the    mind   of   the    king.      After   reigning 

,         ,  ,      ,  A  1).  1810.. 

fitty  years   he   became  msane,  and  the  regency 
of  the  kingdom  was  committed  to  his  son,  who  was  after- 
wards King  George  the  Fourth. 

654.  The  wars  of  the  French  Revolution  burdened 
Great  Britain  with  a  debt  of  four  thousand  millions  of 
dollars,  which  pressed,  most  heavily,  upon  the  working 
classes.  At  the  same  time  the  use  of  steam  in  manufac- 
tures threw  thousands  of  worthy  people  out  of  employ- 
ment, while  the  price  of  food  was  raised  by  the  Corn 
Laws,  which  prohibited  the  importation  of  grain.  For 
many  years  the  government  had  a  difficult  task  in  dealing 
with  the  popular  discontent  under  these  miseries,  which  it 
could  not  at  once  remove. 

655.  George  III.  died  in  1820,  and  the  Prince  Regent 
became  king.  His  only  child,  the  Princess  Charlotte,  was 
already  dead,  and  his  ill-treated  wife,  Caroline  of  Bruns- 
wick, did  not  long  survive  his  accession.  George  IV.  was 
a  selfish  and  profligate  king,  spending  the  money  of  his 
starving  people  on  the  most  frivolous  amusements.  For- 
tunately, the  government  really  rested  in  better  hands 
than  his.  Some  liberal  measures  were  carried  by  his 
ministers;  notably,  that  of  "Catholic  Emancipation," 
removing  disabilities  which  had  existed  ever  since  the 
time  of  Charles  II.  (§544).  There  was  no  longer  any 
danger  of  the  Pope's  ruling  England;  and  it  was  seen 
to  be  wrong  that  millions  of  people  in  Ireland  should 
be  unrepresented  in  Parliament  merely  on  account  of  their 
religious   belief. 

656.  Many  Englishmen,  of  whom  Lord  Byron  was  most 
distinguished,   took   part    in    the   Greek    revolution,    which 


366  MODERN  HISTORY. 

delivered  the  land  of  Pericles  and  Plato,  after  four  hun- 
dred years'  degrading  servitude  to  the  Turks.  The  gov- 
ernment at  last  followed  their  lead,  and,  in  alliance  with 
France  and  Russia,  defeated  the  Turkish  fleet  in  the  Bay 
of  Navarino  (§722). 

657.  In  1830,  William  IV. ^  succeeded  his  brother.  His 
seven  years'  reign  is  noted  as  the  period  of  long-needed 
parliamentary  reform.  Since  the  application  of  steam  to 
machinery,  many  towns  had  grown  immensely  in  wealth 
and  population,  but  had  no  voice  in  the  government  to  pro- 
tect their  rights;  while  some  ancient  boroughs,  once  im- 
portant, had  lost  all  or  nearly  all  their  inhabitants,  but, 
as  they  were  entitled  to  representation,  their  seats  in  par- 
liament were  filled  by  the  appointment  of  some  great 
landed  proprietor,  who  thus  had  far  more  power  than  was 
just.  In  1832,  fifty-six  of  these  "pocket-boroughs"  were 
abolished,  and  one  hundred  and  forty-three  seats  were 
distributed  among  the  great  towns,  while  the  right  to  vote 
was  extended  to  every  man  who  owned  property  or  paid 
rent  to  a  certain  small  amount, 

658.  One  of  the  first  acts  of  the  reformed  Parliament 
abolished  slavery  in  all  the  British  colonies.  Wilberforce 
and  others  had  succeeded,  in  1807,  in  putting  an  end  to 
the  slave  trade.  Improvement  was  also  made  in  the  Poor 
Laws,  so  that  a  laborer  could  seek  employment  beyond  the 
limits  of  the  parish  in  which  he  was  born. 

659.  In  1837,  the  crown  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland 
passed  to  Victoria,^  daughter  of  the  duke  of  Kent,  while 
that  of  Hanover  was  inherited  by  her  father's  younger 
brother  (see  Table,  p.  369).  Many  troubles  beset  the  three 
kingdoms  and  their  dependencies.  Canada  was  in  revolt, 
Jamaica  nearly  so,  a  commercial  war  was  on  the  eve  of 
breaking  out  with  China,  and  the  discontent  at  home  was 
greater  than  ever,  owing  to  scanty  harvests  and  the  high 
price  of  food.      Riotous  meetings  were  held  near  the  great 


THE  CRIMEAN   WAK.  367 


towns,  demanding  a  rei)eal  of  the  Corn  Laws,  and  some 

radical  changes  in  the  government. 

660.  The  cold,  wet  summer  of  1845  injured  the  grain 
crop  all  over  Europe  and  blighted  the  potato  in  Ireland. 
A  terrible  famine  was  the  consequence,  carrying  off  thou- 
sands of  the  Irish  peasantry  and  leaving  whole  parishes 
uninhabited.  In  1846,  parliament  repealed  all  duties  upon 
articles  of  food,  and  gradually  the  discontent  died  away 
in  a  better  condition  of  the  people. 

661.  In  1840,  the  queen  married  Prince  Albert^of  Saxe- 
Coburg-Ciotha,  a  truly  "blameless  prince,"  who,  seeking 
neither  honors  nor  power  for  himself,  devoted  his  rare 
talents  to  promoting  the  success  and  happiness  of  her 
reign.  Among  other  enterprises  which  he  aided,  was  the 
first  "World's  Fair,"  for  which  a  "Crystal  Palace"  was 
erected  in   Hyde  Park,   London,  A.   D.    1851. 

662.  Her  alliance  with  the  new  French  Empire  (§§738, 
739)  plunged  England  into  the  Crimean  War,  the  object 
of  which  was  to  protect  Turkey  against  the  aggressions  of 
the  Czar  Nicholas.^  The  Turks  had  a  prophecy  that  their 
dominion  in  Europe  was  to  fall  just  four  hundred  years 
from  the  time  of  its  establishment  (§379).  When  that 
year  of  fate  arrived,  the  Czar,  who  coveted 
Constantinople,  proposed  to  the  British  gov-  '  '  ^^' 
ernment  to  share  the  spoils  by  seizing  Egypt  and  Crete, 
rhis  was  refused,  and  Lord  Stratford  de  Redclifife,  English 
ambassador  at  Constantinople — whom  the  Czar  spitefully 
called  the  "English  Sultan"  from  his  influence  over  the 
Turks — was  warned  to  watch   the   Russian  movements. 

663.  Nicholas  soon  marched  an  army  to  the  lower 
Danube,  and  seized  the  provinces  of  Moldavia  and  Wal- 
lachia.  The  Sultan  declared  war,  and  his  general,  Omar 
Pasha,  gained  several  brilliant  victories  over  the  invaders, 
forcing  them  at  length  to  give  uj)  the  disputed  provinces. 


368  MODERN  HISTORY. 


To  make  it  sure  that  the  peace  of  Europe  would  not  be 
disturbed  again  in  the  same  way,  the  French  and  English 
fleets  moved  up  the  Black  Sea  and  besieged 
ct.,  I  54-  ^^  fortress  of  Sevastopol  in  the  Crimean  pe- 
ninsula. For  nearly  a  year  its  strong  defenses  resisted  all 
attempts  to  reduce  them,  though  the  Russians  were  re- 
pulsed at  Balaklava  and  signally  defeated  at  Inkermann. 
The  British  soldiers  suffered  more  from  cold  and  hunger, 
owing  to  inefficient  management,  than  from  the  necessary 
hardships  of  war;  but  the  sick  were  kindly  and  skillfully 
cared  for  by  Florence  Nightingale  and  her  noble  band  of 
volunteer  nurses — ladies  who  had  left  the  comfort  of  Eng- 
lish homes  for  a  pilgrimage  of  charity  to  this  Tartar  wil- 
derness, and  whose  only  reward  was  the  happiness  of 
relieving   pain. 

664.  The  Czar  died  in  March,  1855;  and  his  son,  Alex- 
ander II.,  a  prince  of  more  moderate  views,  came  to  the 
throne.  Lord  Palmerston  was  now  at  the  head  of  the 
British  ministry,  and  new  energy  appeared  in  the  move- 
ments of  the  allies.  A  fleet,  cruising  in  the  Sea  of  Azof, 
destroyed  immense  magazines  of  grain,  which  were  to  have 
fed  the  garrison  of  Sevastopol;  while  another,  penetrating 
the  Baltic,  shut  up  the  Russian  ships  in  their  harbor  of 
Cronstadt.  At  last  the  Redan  and  the  Malakoff,  two  great 
forts  which  guarded  the  south  side  of  Sevastopol,  were 
taken  by  storm.  The  Russians  sunk  their  fleet  in  the 
harbor,  set  fire  to  the  town,  and  retired  to  the  north  forts. 

665.  The  Czar  was  now  ready  for  peace,  and  in  March, 
1856,  a  treaty  was  signed  at  Paris.  The  Black  Sea  was 
thrown  open  to  the  commerce  of  all  nations,  but  no  war- 
ships, either  Turkish  or  Russian,  were  permitted  to  enter 
it.  The  provinces  on  the  lower  Danube  were  united  in 
the  almost  independent  sovereignty  of  Roumania,  free  to 
regulate  all  matters  of  religion  and  law  for  themselves, 
and  to   choose   their   own   prince  with   the   formal   consent 


DESCENDANTS  OF  GEORGE  III.  369 

of  the  Sultan.  Christians  in  Turkey  —  who  outnumbered 
the  Mohammedans  ahnost  six  to  one  —  were  declared  to 
be  under  the  protection  of  the  great  Christian  Powers. 

Point  out  Trafalgar.  Navarino.  Sevastopol.  What  seas  were 
traversed  by  the  allied  fleets  in  1854?  Where  is  Cronstadt? 
Koumania? 

Read  Chapter  X  of  Green's  "Short  History;"  Macaulay's  History 
of  England  and  Essays  on  Clive  and  Hastings;  Bancroft's  History  of 
the  United  Stall*;,  volumes  relating  lo  the  French  and  Indian  and 
Revolutionary  wars. 


FAMILY   OF   GEORGE   HI. 

George  III. 
I 

George  IV.  William  IV.  Edward,  D.  of  Kent,  Ernest  Augustus, 

I  died,  1820.  K.  of  Hanover. 

Charlotte,  died,  1817.  I 

Victoria. 


THE   SPANISH   SUCCESSION. 

2628. 
Philip  III.  — g  525. 

Anne  m.  Louis  XIII.       Philip  IV.  m   Eliz.        Mary  Anne  m.  FERDINAND  III. 
I  of  France. J 

I  I  I  L 

Ztf«/jAVr:  m.  Maria  Theresa.      Charles  II.     Marg't.  Theresa  m.  LEOPOLD  I., 

I  ^  ^  who  m. 

Louis,  Dauphin.  2d  Mary  Anne  of  Neuberg. 

! I 

I  i  i 

Louis.  Philip  V—l  630.  JOSEPH   I.  CHARLES  VI. 


Names  of  Emperors  are  in  large  capitals.   Kings  of  Spain,  in  small 
capitals,  and  Kings  of  France^  in  italics. 


Hist.—  2A 


370  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 


NOTES. 

1.  Lecky,  in  his  "History  of  England  in  the  XVIII.  Century,"  no- 
tices the  "great  multitude  of  disputed  titles"  in  Europe  as  having  an 
important  effect  upon  the  popular  views  concerning  monarchy.  "The 
throne  of  England  wtis  disputed  between  tlie  House  of  Hanover  and 
the  House  of  Stuart.  The  Spanish  throne  was  disputed  between  Philip 
V.  and  the  emperor.  In  Italy,  .  .  .  the  successions  of  Tuscany  and 
Parma  were  disputed  by  the  emperor  and  Spanish  Queen.  In  Poland, 
the  rival  claims  of  Stanislaus,  who  was  supported  by  Charles  XII.,  and 
of  Augustus  (§594),  who  was  supported  by  Peter  the  Great,  were,  during 
many  years,  contested  by  arms.  In  France,  the  title  of  the  young  king 
was,  indeed,  undisputed,  but  his  fragile  constitution  made  men  look 
forward  to  his  speedy  death,  and  parties  were  already  forming  in  sup- 
port of  the  rival  claims  of  the  regent  and  tiie  king  of  Spain.  Among 
the  causes  which  were  lowering  the  position  of  monarchy  in  p]urope 
in  the  Eighteenth  Century,  the  multiplication  of  these  disputed  titles 
deserves  a  prominent  place.  Tliey  shook  the  reverence  for  the  throne; 
they  destroyed  the  mystic  sanctity  that  surrounded  it;  they  brouglit 
the  supreme  authority  of  the  nation  into  the  arena  of  controversy.  In 
England,  since  the  period  of  the  Restoration  (g544),  the  doctrine  of  the 
divine  right  of  kings,  and  of  the  absolute  criminality  of  all  rebellion, 
was,  as  we  have  seen,  a  fundamental  tenet,  not  only  of  the  Tory  party, 
but  also  of  the  Established  Church.  But,  from  the  accession  of  George 
I.  it  began  rapidly  to  decline.  The  enthronement  of  the  new  dynasty 
had,  for  a  time  at  least,  solved  the  doubtful  question  of  the  succession 
according  to  the  principles  of  tlie  Revolution." 

2.  J.R.Green,  in  "A  Short  History  of  the  English  People,"  says 
that  a  complete  transfer  of  political  power  from  the  House  of  Lords 
to  the  House  of  Commons,  was  marked  by  "  the  series  of  '  Great  Com- 
moners,' who,  from  this  time,  became  the  rulers  of  England.  ...  Of 
these  Great  Commoners,  Robert  Walpole  was  the  first.  Born  in  1676,  he 
entered  Parliament  two  years  before  William's  death,  as  a  young  Nor- 
folk land  owner  of  fair  fortune,  with  the  tastes  and  air  of  the  class  from 
which  he  sprang.  .  .  .  He  was  ignorant  of  books j  he  'loved  neither 
writing  nor  reading,'  and  if  he  had  a  taste  for  art.  his  real  love  was  for 
the  table,  tlie  bottle,  and  the  chase.  .  .  .  Walpole  was  the  first  minis- 
ter—it has  been  finely  said— 'who  gave  our  government  that  charac- 
ter of  lenity  which  it  has  since  generally  deserved.'  No  man  was  ever 
more  fiercely  attacked  by  speakers  and  writers,  but  he  brought  in  no 
'gagging  act '  for  the  press,  and  though  the  lives  of  most  of  his  assailants 
were  in  his  hands  through  their  intrigues  with  the  Pretender,  he  made 
no  use  of  his  power  over  them.  .  .  .  Walpole  was  not  only  the  first 
English  Peace  Minister;  he  was  the  first  English  minister  who  was  a 
great  financier,  and  who  regarded  the  development  of  national  wealth 
and  the  adjustment  of  national  burdens  as  the  business  of  a  statesman. 
His  time  of  power  was  a  time  of  great  material  prosperity.  .  .  .  But 
if  Walpole's  aims  were  wise  and  statesmanlike,  he  was  unscrupulous  in 
the  means  by  which  he  realized  them.  Personally,  he  was  free  from 
corruption ;  and  he  is  perhaps  the  first  great  English  statesman  who 
left  office  poorer  than  when  he  entered  it.  But  he  was  certainly  the 
first  who  made  parliamentary  corruption  a  regular  part  of  his  system  of 
government.  ...  A  vote  was  too  valuable  to  be  given  without  recom- 
pense. Parliamentary  support  had  to  be  bought  by  places,  pensions, 
and  bribes  in  hard  cash." 

3.  James  Edward  Oglethorpe  was  one  of  the  most  remarkable  men 
in  the  English  society  of  his  day.  In  youth  he  served  under  Marlbor- 
ough and  Prince  Eugene  in  Germany.  Returning  to  England,  he  be- 
came interested  in  philanthropic  efforts,  chiefiy  in  behalf  of  orphans 
and  poor  debtors,  and  obtained  from  the  king  a  large  grant  of  American 
lands  "in  trust  for  the  poor."  He  came  over  with  the  first  settlers  and 
lived  for  a  year  in  a  tent,  where  he  afterwards  laid  out  the  streets  of 
Savannah.  During  the  War  of  Austrian  Succession,  he  had  to  defend 
his  colony  against  the  neighboring  Spaniards.  He  himself  invaded 
Florida,  and   repulsed  an  invasion  of  his  own  territory.     Returning  to 


NOTES,  371 

England  in  171.').  ho  (*«>ntinuiHl  f«ir  forty  ycare  to  be  a  warm  frlcMK^of 
Auiorloa.    Ho  tliotl  at  groat  ago  in  1786. 

4.  William  Pitt,  the  KIcior,  wiw  iMirii  in  Cornwall  in  17()«,  educated 
at  Kton  and  Oxfonl,  and  ontore<l  Parliament  in  ITXx  In  174«,  he  receive<l 
what  wius  c«>nstdoretl  the  most  luoratlve  Dftioe  In  the  gift  of  the  govern- 
niont.  that  of  payimustor  of  tlie  foroos.  "Hut  it**  profits  weroof  an  illieit 
kind,  and,  iMM»r  as  lie  was.  IMtt  refused  to  a«Ti'pt  one  farthing  lM»yon(! 
his  sjihiry.''  In  i7')7,  he  l>eoaine  Seoretnry  of  State,  and  the  energetic 
supp«)rt  wliich  lie  gave  Frinierie  II.  of  Prussia,  turned  tlie  tide  ol  the 
Seven  Years'  War  ({;  WKJ).  In  tlie  del>ates  on  taixation  wliieli  followeil 
this  war,  IMtt  constantly  denied  the  rt^ht  ot  Parliament  to  lay  l)urdenH 
upon  tlie  ct)lonies,  condemning  tlie  Stamp  Act,  in  one  of  Ids* most  elo- 
quent speeches.  After  tlie  War  of  American  Independence  hu«l  begun, 
he  usetl  his  mast  fiery  ehHiuence  In  denouncing  the  emi>loyment  of 
savages  to  fight  Jigainst  the  colonists.  Still  he  opposed  the  acknowledg- 
ment of  our  indejpendence,  and  his  speech  to  tids  efTect  w»u<  the  la«t 
effort  of  his  life.  Lord  liroughamsays  of  Pitt :  "  He  Is  the  person  to  whom 
every  one  would  at  once  i)oint  If  asked  to  luimc  the  int)st  successful 
statesmati  and  most  brilliant  orator  that  his  country  ever  pnKluced." 
l*itt  sacrificed  much  of  his  popularity  by  acceptiiig  a  peerage  in  1700, 
becoming  tlie  first  Earl  of  Cliatluim.    He  died  In  1778. 

5.  William  IV.,  the  third  son  of  George  III.,  was  born  in  London, 
176.').  He  entered  the  navy  as  midsliipman  in  177{>,  and  spent  a  winter 
in  New  York  during  the  occupation  of  that  city  by  the  Uiitish  (jJtVil). 

6.  Queen  Victoria  was  born  at  Kensington  Palace,  May  24, 1819.  She 
was  carefully  educated  under  the  care  of  her  mother  and  the  Duchess 
of  Northumberland,  and  Is  said  to  have  first  discovered  her  title  to  the 
crown  from  her  reading  of  history  when  about  thirteen  years  of  age. 
Surprised  and  moved  by  this  sudden  perception  of  the  resjM)nsibiIltles 
that  awaitetl  her,  .she  laid  her  hand  in  that  of  her  governess  and 
exclaimed,  "I  will  try  to  be  good!"  In  her  simple  and  quiet  life, 
exempt  from  the  flatteries  of  courts,  she  had  learned  to  be  "  brave,  self- 
reliant,  and  systematic.  Prudence  and  economy  had  been  taught  her 
as  though  she  had  been  born  to  be  poor." 

7.  Prince  Albert  was  descended  from  the  elder  or  ducal  Saxon  line, 
descended  from  the  electors  Frederic  the  Wise  and  John  the  Steadfast, 

})rotectors  of  Luther,  while  the  royal  House  of  Saxony  have   for  their 
bunder  that  Duke  Maurice  (g4t)9)  who  supplanted  his  cou.sin. 

8.  Nicholas  I.  was  the  third  son  of  the  Emperor  Paul  I.,  and  brother 
of  Alexander  I.  (?703),  whom  he  succeeded  in  182.5.  A  dangerous  revolt 
broke  out  among' the  troops  at  St.  Petersburg  immediately  on  his  acces- 
sion, for  there  were  already  secret  societies  in  Russia  which  were  plot- 
ting radical  changes  in  the  government.  Many  nobles  were  exiled  to 
Siberia  for  their  share  in  this  plot,  and  the  severity  used  in  its  suppression 
onlv  confirmed  the  arbitniry  temper  of  Nichola-s.  This  was  equally 
sliown  against  the  Poles,  who,  in  18;^,  nuide  a  desperate  but  heroic  ef- 
fort to  regain  their  lost  independence,  and  in  the  intervention  of  Nich- 
olas on  the  side  of  Austria  in  the  Hungarian  Revolution  (^7;fi>)  of  1848 
and  '49.  In  both  cases  the  movement  toward  freedom  was  sternly 
checked,  though  later  events,  in  the  war  of  18()<5,  brought  to  the  Hun- 
garians most  of  the  constitutional  changes  they  desired. 

The  cares  inseparable  from  the  despotic  control  of  so  vast  an  empire, 
aggravated  by  his  vexation  at  the  reverses  of  the  Crimean  War,  wore 
out  at  last  even  the  iron  frame  of  Nicholas,  and  he  died  during  the 
siege  of  Sebastoix)l. 

9.  Henry  John  Temple,  Viscount  Palmerston,  one  of  the  most  pop- 
ular of  English  statesmen,  was  bom  1784,  and  died  1865.  His  Irish  peer- 
age gave  him  no  place  in  the  Englisli  House  of  Lords,  but  he  was 
fifty  years  a  member  of  the  Commons,  where  his  business-like  energy 
and  skill  in  debate  found  their  most  appropriate^  field.  As  minister  for 
Foreign  .Vflairs,  Palmerston  was  among  the  first  to  rewjgnize  the  French 
Republic,  and  he  even  approved  the  steps  by  which  Napoleon  III. 
gained  supreme  power. 


CHAPTER    XII. 


BRITISH    EMPIRE    IN    THE    EAST. 


Palanquin  Bearers  in  India. 

OR  a  hundred  years  from  its  foundation,  the  English 
East  India  Company  confined  itself  to  trade  —  building  a 
few  forts  and  warehouses  on  lands  given  it  by  the  Mogul 
emperors.  After  the  time  of  Aurungzebe,  who  died  in 
1707,  the  empire  founded  by  Baber  (§377)  rapidly  de- 
clined; and,  though  a  Great  Mogul  still  reigned  in  his 
jeweled  palace  at  Delhi,  the  twenty-one  native  princes  of 
the  peninsula  paid  him  little  respect  and  still  less  obedi- 
ence, but  spent  their  time  in  quarreling  among  themselves 
and  oppressing  their  subjects. 

667.  By  helping  the  weaker  party  in  these  disputes,  the 
Company  began  to  acquire  power  and  wealth,  which  were 
often  increased   by  buying   the  sovereignty  of  some  bank- 

(372) 


CLiVE  AND  HASTINGS.  373 


nipt  niziim  or  rajah.  Conquests  from  ilic  French  and 
their  Hindu  allies,  during  the  Seven  Years'  War  (§645), 
laid  the  foundation  of  the  IJritish  Indian  Empire.  In 
1756,  Sura'jah  Dow'lah,  the  native  viceroy  of  Bengal,  cap- 
tured Calcutta,  and  thrust  all  the  British  residents  into  a 
loathsome  dungeon  called  the  Black  Hole,  where  most  of 
llieni  died  in  agonies  of  thirst  and  suffocation  in  a  single 
night.  Robert  Clive,^  formerly  a  poor  clerk  in  the  Com- 
pany's counting-house,  now  at  the  head  of  only  3,000 
men,  recovered  Calcutta  and  gained  a  complete  victory 
over  the  army  of  Dowlah,  who  soon  afterwards  lost  his 
station  and  his  life.  Clive  was  made  Covernor  of  Calcutta, 
and  Baron  of  Plassy,  from  the  scene  of  his  victory. 

668.  In  1773,  the  three  Presidencies  of  Bombay,  Mad- 
ras, and  Bengal  were  united  under  Warren  Hastings,2who, 
as  Governor-Cieneral,  resided  at  Calcutta.  He  carried  on 
a  fierce  conflict  with  Hyder  Ali,  the  native  sultan  of 
Mysore  in  southern  India,  who  was  aided  by  the  French 
during  the  war  of  American  Independence  (§652).  He 
was  conquered  at  last,  but  the  struggle  was  renewed  by 
his  son,  Tippoo  Sahib,  when  the  French  Revolution  had 
reawakened  the  hostilities  in  Europe  between  the  French 
and  the  English.  The  whole  kingdom  of  Mysore  was  at 
length  absorbed  into  the  British  Empire. 

669.  The  Company's  servants  usually  made  themselves 
rich  at  the  expense  of  the  Hindus,  perhaps  quieting  their 
consciences  with  the  assurance  that  no  amount  of  extor- 
tion and  oppression  could  equal  the  cruelties  of  the  native 
rulers.  But  this  excuse  did  not  satisfy  English  feeling  at 
home.  In  1786,  Hastings  was  accused,  by  Edmund  Burke, 
before  the  bar  of  the  House  of  Lords;  and,  though  he  was 
finally  acquitted  on  the  ground  that  the  directors  of  the 
company  were  more  guilty  of  extortion  than  he,  effectual 
measures  were  taken  to  protect  the  helpless  natives  of 
India  from  future  abuse. 


374  MODERN  HISTORY. 

670.  In  1833,  the  Indian  trade  was  thrown  freely  open 
to  all  British  subjects.  The  Chinese  government  was  soon 
alarmed  by  the  enormous  quantities  of  opium  brought  into 
its  markets  from  northern  India.  The  Chinese  people 
were  only  too  fond  of  the  ruinous  drug ;  their  government 
made  stringent  laws  to  prevent  its  introduction;  and,  when 
these  were  violated,  British  merchants  were  shut  up  in 
their  factory  at  Canton  until  they  gave  up  all  the  opium  in 

their  possession.     The   English  home-cfovern- 

A.  D.  1840-1842.  /-  ,  •  r     • 

ment  went  to  war  for  the  protection  of  its 
subjects.  Canton  and  several  other  towns  were  taken  by 
storm,  and,  at  length,  the  Chinese  officials  signed  a  treaty 
ceding  Hong  Kong  to  the  British,  and  opening  several 
ports  to  foreign  trade. 

671.  This  was  a  great  concession;  for  the  oldest  of  em- 
pires had  kept  itself  closed  for  ages  against  all  the  rest  of 
the  world.  It  soon  afterwards  made  treaties  with  France 
and  the  United  States.  A  new  war  was  occasioned,  in 
1855,  by  some  trifling  encroachment  on  the  part  of  the 
Chinese.  Canton  was  again  captured  by  a  French  and 
English  force,  and,  by  the  treaty  of  Tientsin,  more  cordial 
relations  were  established. 

672.  A  far  more  serious  war  soon  threatened  England 
with  the  loss  of  her  whole  Indian  Empire.  The  native 
soldiers,  called  Sepoys,  by  means  of  whom  this  great 
peninsula  was  kept  in  subjection,  numbered  nearly  a 
quarter  of  a  million.  Better  fed,  paid,  and  treated  than 
they  ever  had  been  by  their  native  rulers,  the  Sepoys 
obeyed  their  officers  with  childlike  confidence.  But  they 
were  a  superstitious  race,  and  any  slight  to  their  religion 
enraged  them  beyond  endurance.  The  government  held 
itself  bound  to  respect  their  religion  wherever  it  did  not 
violate  the  universal  principles  of  humanity  —  only  inter- 
fering to  prevent  the  burning  of  widows  and  the  drowning 
of  children  as  a  sacrifice  to  the  Ganges. 


THE   SEPOY  REBELLION.  375 


673.  In  1856,  new  rifles  came  out  from  England  for 
the  Sepoy  regiments;  and  with  them  greased  cartridges, 
which  were  supposed  to  contain  bcef-tallow.  'Jo  bite  ofl" 
the  ends  of  these  would  be  pollution  to  a  Hindu;  and,  feel- 
ing their  ancient  fiiith  insulted,  several  regiments  mutinied. 
Frightful  massacres  of  the  white  residents  occurred  at 
Delhi,  Meerut,  and  Cawnpore ;  and  Lucknow,  capital  of 
Oudc,  was  besieged,  all  the  summer  of  1857,  by  thousands 
of  infuriated  rebels.  Gen.  Havelock  brought  a  small  force 
from  Persia,  and,  after  many  battles  with  far  greater  num- 
bers of  Sepoys,  he  was  able  to  enter  Lucknow  and  save 
it  until  relief  could  come  from  home. 

674.  At  length  Sir  Golin  Campbell,  with  a  brigade  of 
Highlanders,  appeared,  and  the  scene  changed.  Delhi, 
the  rebel  capital,  was  taken,  and  its  king,  the  "last  of 
the  Moguls,"  with  his  sons,  was  executed  for  mutiny. 
The  rebellion  was  soon  over.     The  government 

of  India  was  taken  from  the  company  and 
vested  in  the  crown.  The  queen  —  now  called  Empress  of 
India — appoints  a  viceroy  to  represent  her  at  Calcutta;  and 
efforts  have  been  made  to  extend  even  to  the  lowest  orders 
of  Hindus  the  benefits  of  enlightened  and  Christian  govern- 
ment. The  British  rulers  refrain,  as  before,  from  directly 
interfering  with  the  native  religion;  but  the  liberal  educa- 
tion provided  for  Hindu  youth  is  rapidly  relieving  them 
from  the  bondage  of  ancient  superstition. 

675.  The  great  continent  of  Australia  was  first  colo- 
nized, by  English  convicts,  in  1788.  A  thousand  of  these 
wretched  creatures,  from  prisons  at  home,  arrived  in 
Sydney  Cove  with  their  officers,  and  began  to  clear  the 
wilderness,  make  roads  and  bridges,  and  prepare  the  way 
for  better  colonists.  Hard  work  proved  its  advantages; 
many  reformed  their  lives,  and  became  useful  citizens  and 
even  magistrates.  Australian  wool  became  celebrated  in 
European   markets;    and    thousands   of   free    settlers   were 


376  MODERN  HISTORY. 

glad  to  follow  where  the  convicts  had  prepared  the  way. 
The  original  colony  of  New  South  Wales  was  divided, 
Victoria  being  set  off  on  the  south  and  Queensland  on 
the   north. 

In  May,  1851,  gold  was  discovered  in  Victoria,  and  a 
great  immigration  of  adventurers  followed.  Melbourne,  the 
capital  of  Victoria,  has  become  a  thriving  city  of  nearly 
200,000  inhabitants,  and  is  the  seat  of  a  university,  while 
Sydney,  the  first  settlement  founded,  is  hardly  less  impor- 
tant. Australia  and  the  neighboring  island  of  Tasmania 
are  united  by  submarine  telegraph  with  London,  while  the 
great  inland  wilderness  is  fast  being  turned  into  homes  for 
civilized  men. 

676.  The  chiefs  of  New  Zealand^  acknowledged  Queen 
Victoria  as  their  sovereign  in  1840.  Covering  more  space 
than  the  British  Islands,  New  Zealand  is  said  to  be  un- 
surpassed by  any  country  in  the  world  for  richness  of 
soil,  healthfulness  of  climate,  and  grandeur  of  scenery. 
The  native  Maoris  are  a  noble  race,  who  have  gladly 
accepted  civilized  and  Christian  teaching.  Their  skill  in 
war  has,  however,  made  them  dangerous  enemies  when- 
ever the  settlers  have  provoked  their  hostilities.  The  Fiji 
islanders  have  lately  put  themselves  under  the  protection 
and  control  of  the  British  Queen,  and  have  sent  her  the 
great  war-club  which,  for  hundreds  of  years,  has  been 
used  as  a  scepter  by  their  chiefs. 

Point  out  the  Mogul  capital  of  Hindustan.  The  present  capital 
of  British  India.  The  three  presidencies.  Canton.  Hong  Kong. 
The  provinces  of  AustraHa.  Melbourne.  Sydney.  New  Zealand. 
The  Fijis. 

Read  Mills'  "British  India;"  Articles  in  Encyclopaedia  Britannica 
on  Hindustan,  Australia,  and  New  Zealand ;  Macaulay's  Essays  on 
Clive  and  Warren  Hastings. 


NOTES,  377 


NOTES. 

1.  Robert  Cllve  was  born  nt  Market  Dmyton,  In  the  west  of  KnRlanrI, 
in  ITiiT).  ills  "strong  will  und  flcry  pjuwionH"  unrttt<Ml  him  f<»r  poawful 
purNutts  at  home,  and,  at  is,  his  family  "Nhippod  him  oir  («>  make  h 
fortune  or  die  of  a  fever  at  Mailras."  In  the  h^ist  India  Company'M 
contests,  tlrst  with  the  French,  ami  afterwanis  with  the  native  prlnccK, 
('live  found  a  flehl  for  his  great  mill lary  tnlents.  His  ilrst  feat  wiu*  the 
surprise  and  capture  of  Arcot,  the  capital  of  the  Carnatlc,  with  a  force 
of  only  2»)0  Kngllsh  and  .WO  native  sohliei-s.  Here  he  wjus  almost  Imme- 
diately besieged  by  1(),(KX)  natives  and  French.  Macnulay  says:  "The 
walls  were  ruinous,  the  ditches  dry,  the  ramparts  txm  narrow  to  admit 
the  guns,  the  battlements  too  low  to  protect  the  soldiers.  The  garrison 
began  to  feel  the  pressure  of  hunger.  Hut  the  devotion  of  the  little 
band  to  its  chief  surpassed  any  thing  that  is  related  of  the  Tenth  Le- 
gion of  Cjesar,  or  of  the  Old  (Juard  of  Naix)leon.  The  Sepoys  C4ime  to 
Ulive— not  t<)  complain  of  their  scanty  fare,  but  to  propose  that  all  the 
grain  should  be  given  to  the  Europeans,  who  reiiulreu  more  nourish- 
ment than  the  natives  of  Asia.  The  thin  gruel,  they  said,  which  was 
strained  away  from  the  rice,  would  suffice  for  themselves!"  The  de- 
fense was  a  complete  success,  and  Clive  thenceforth  occupied  a  front 
rank  among  English  soldiers.  Macaulay  thus  sums  up  the  services 
which  entitle  hini  to  be  considered  the  Founder  of  the  iJritish  Empire 
in  Hindostan:  "From   his  lli-st  visit  to  India  dates  the  renown  of  En- 

ffUsh  arms  in  the  East.  With  the  defense  of  Arcot  commences  that 
ong  series  of  Oriental  triumphs  which  closes  with  the  fall  of  Uhaznl. 
Nor  must  we  forget  that  he  was  only  25  years  old  when  he  approve<l 
himself  ripe  for  military  command ....  Clive,  an  inexperienced 
youth,  liad  yet  more  experience  than  any  of  those  who  served  under 
l\im.  He  liad  to  form  himself,  to  form  his  officers  and  to  form  his 
army.  .  .  .  From  Clive's  second  visit  to  India  dates  the  political  as- 
cendancy of  the  English  in  that  country.  .  .  .  Such  an  extent  of 
cultivated  territory,  such  an  amount  of  revenue,  such  a  multitude  of 
subjects,  was  never  added  to  the  dominion  of  Rome  by  the  most  suc- 
cessful proconsul.  .  .  .  From  Clive's  third  visit  to  India  dates  the 
purity  of  the  administration  of  our  Eastern  empire.  When  he  landed 
at  Calcutta  in  1765,  Bengal  was  regarded  as  a  place  to  which  Englishmen 
were  sent  only  to  get  rich  by  any  means,  in  the  shortest  possible  time. 
He  first  made  dauntless  and  unsparing  war  on  that  gigantic  system  of 
oppression,  extortion,  and  corruption.  In  that  war  he  manfully  put  to 
hazard  his  ease,  his  fame,  his  splendid  fortune.  ...  If  the  reproach 
of  the  Company  and  its  servants  has  been  taken  away— if  in  India  the 
yoke  of  foreign  mastei's,  elsewhere  the  heaviest  of  all  yokes,  has  been 
found  lighter  than  that  of  any  native  dynasty,  .  .  .  the  praise  is  in 
no  smalt  measure  due  to  Clive.  His  name  stands  high  on  the  roll  of 
conquerors.  Hut  it  is  found  in  a  better  list— in  the  list  of  those  who 
have  done  and  sutTereti  much  for  the  happiness  of  mankind." 

Clive  was  brought  to  trial  before  the  Ilouse  of  Commons  for  his  ad- 
ministration in  India;  but  his  great  services  and  the  general  elevation 
of  his  policy  overbalanced  all  tlie  charges  against  him.    He  died  in  1774. 

2.  Hastings,  like  Clive,  had  been  a  clerk  in  the  East  India  Company's 
employ,  and  he  served  as  a  private  volunteer  in  one  of  Clive's  first  ex- 
peditions, "Hut  the  quick  eye  of  Clive  perceived  that  the  head  of  the 
young  volunteer  would  be  more  useful  than  his  arm,"  and.  after  the 
battle  of  Plassy,  Ha.stings  was  appolnte<l  to  reside  as  agent  or  the  com- 
pany at  the  court  of  the  new  Niiwb  of  Hengal.  He  rose,  by  successive 
steps,  to  l>e  member  of  Council  at  Calcutta,  afterwards  ai  Madras,  Gov- 
ernor of  Bengal,  and,  at  last,  Governor  Geneml  of  the  whole  country. 
At  all  stages  of  his  career,  his  studious  tastes  UhI  him  to  delight  in  the 
languages  and  literature  of  the  I<]ast,  and  his  general  iK)llcy  as  a  ruler 
was  enlightened  and  li»)eral.  Still,  the  urgent  demands  of  the  company 
at  home  for  large  remittances  of  money,  led  him  into  two  or  three 
transactions  which  were  felt  to  be  inconsistent  with  the  honor  of  En- 

f;land.  One  of  these  was  the  lending  of  an  English  army— for  two  mil- 
ions  of  dollars— to  Sujah  Dowlah,  prince  of  Oude,  for  the  conquest  of 
the  Rohillas,  the  finest  race  in  India.  They  could  bring  80,000  men  into 
the  field.  "  Sujah  Dowlah  had  himself  seen  them  fight,  and  wisely  shrank 


378 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


from  a  conflict  with  them."  They  were  defeated  by  the  English.  "Then 
tlie  Nabob  Vizier  and  his  rabble  made  their  appearance,  and  hastened 
to  pUinder  the  camp  of  the  valiant  enemies,  whom  they  had  never 
dared  to  look  in  the  face.  .  .  .  Tlie  horrors  of  Indian  war  were  let 
loose  on  the  fair  valleys  and  cities  of  Rohilcund.  The  whole  country 
was  in  a  blaze.  More  than  100,000  people  fled  from  tlieir  homes  to  pes- 
tilential jungles,  preferring  famine  and  fever  and  the  haunts  of  tigers 
to  the  tyranny  of  him,  to  whom  an  English  and  a  Christian  govern- 
ment had  sold  their  substance  and  their  blood.  The  rich  province  which 
had  tempted  the  cupidity  of  Sujah  Dowlah  became  the  most  miserable 
part  of  even  his  miserable  dominions." 

The  directors  of  the  Company  condemned  the  conduct  of  Hastings  in 
this  matter;  but  they  could  not  fail  to  approve  his  energy  and  prompt- 
ness in  dealing  with  Hyder-Ali,  who  invaded  the  Carnatic  in  1780. 
This  Mohammedan  warrior  was  king  of  Mysore,  and  the  'ablest  enemy 
the  English  ever  had  to  contend  with  in  India.'  The  war  of  American 
Independence  had  now  drawn  England  and  France  into  conflict,  and 
a  French  fleet  was  daily  expected  on  the  Coromandel  coast.  Hyder  had 
attacked  and  defeated  two  British  generals,  and  had  advanced  almost 
to  the  walls  of  Madras,  when  "  a  swift  ship,  flying  before  the  south-west 
monsoon,  brought  the  evil  tidings  to  Calcutta."  Hastings  promptly  dis- 
patched men  and  money  to  the  scene  of  action,  superseded  the  incom- 
Setent  governor  of  Madras,  and  entrusted  Sir  P^yre  Coote,  the  ablest 
ritish  general  of  his  time,  with  the  conduct  of  the  war.  The  re-in- 
forcements  reached  Madras  before  the  arrival  of  the  French:  "the  pro- 
gress <jf  Hyder  was  arrested,  and  in  a  few  months  the  great  victory  of 
Porto  Novo  retrieved  the  honor  of  the  English  arms." 

To  meet  the  expense  of  this  war  Hastings  expelled  the  rich  king  of 
Benares  from  his  dominions  and  confiscated  all  his  revenues;  then  de- 
spoiled two  widowed  princesses  of  Oude,  mother  and  grandmother  of 
the  Nabob  Vizier,  who  was  a  son  of  Sujah  Dowlah. 

In  1785  Hastings  resigned  his  ofl^ce  and  returned  to  England.  Within 
a  week  after  his  landing  at  Plymouth,  Edmund  Burke  gave  notice  in 
the  House  of  Commons  of  a  motion  for  his  impeachment.  The  trial 
came  on  in  1788,  and  lasted  seven  years.  It  ended  in  the  acquittal  of 
Hastings,  whose  great  services  were  rewarded  by  an  annuity  of  $20,000. 
He  died,  1818,  at  the  age  of  86. 

3.  The  Colonies  and  foreign  dependencies  of  Great  Britain  embrace 
about  one  seventh  of  the  land  surface  of  the  globe,  and  nearly  one 
fourth  of  its  population,  having  more  than  sixty  times  the  extent  of 
the  United  Kingdom  itself.  They  are  under  40  diflerent  colonial  gov- 
ernments, of  which  4  are  in  Europe,  11  in  or  near  America,  10  in  or  near 
Africa,  7  in  Asia,  and  8  in  Australasia.  The  European  colonies  are  Hel- 
igoland, Gibraltar,  Malta,  and  Cyprus,  all  of  which  have  rulers  appointed 
by  the  crown.  The  American  possessions  are,  1,  The  Bahamas,  a  group 
of  800  islands,  of  which  20  are  inhabited;  2,  The  Bermudas,  about  800,  of 
which  15  are  inhabited;  3,  The  Dominion  of  Canada,  comprising  the 
provinces  of  Ontario,  Quebec,  New  Brunswick,  Nova  Scotia,  Manitoba, 
British  Columbia,  Prince  Edward's  Island  and  the  territories;  4,  The 
Falkland  Islands;  5,  Guiana;  6,  Honduras;  7,  Jamaica;  8,  The  Leeward 
Islands;  9,  Newfoundland;  10,  Trinidad;  11,  The  Windward  Islands.  In 
Asia,  besides  the  great  empire  of  India,  which  numbers  nearly  200,000,000 
of  human  beings,  England  possesses  the  town  of  Aden,  at  the  entrance 
of  the  Red  Sea;  the  Island  of  Ceylon*  the  "Straits  Settlements,"  com- 
prising the  Islands  of  Singapore  and  Penang,  with  the  territory  of 
Malacca;  the  Island  of  Hong  Kong;  and  two  of  less  importance. 

New  Zealand  was  first  visited  by  the  Dutch  navigator,  Tasman,  in 
1642;  explored  by  Captain  Cook,  1769;  settled  first  by  deserters  from 
whaling  ships  and  escaped  convicts  from  New  South  Wales,  but  after- 
wards, about  18;i5,  by  respectable  colonists  from  England  and  Scotland, 
pioneered  by  Wesleyan  and  other  missionaries.  Its  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives has  88  members,  of  whom  4  are  Maoris,  chosen  by  their  own 
people.  Speaking  of  the  progress  in  civilization  under  English  rule, 
the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica  says:  "A  chief  now,  instead  of  leading  his 
followers  on  to  plunder  and  massacre  the  white  men,  may  be  seen 
walking  into  a  banking  office  in  Auckland  or  Wellington,  and  writing 
a  check  for  a  portion  of  his  money  deposited  there;  or  sitting  in  a 
news-room  perusing  a  newspaper  printed  in  his  own  language." 


CHAPTER    XIII. 

THE   FRENCH   REVOLUTION. 

ANY  changes  were  silently  going  on 
in  Europe  during  the  eighteenth 
century.  A  skeptical  sort  of  phi- 
losophy had  taken  possession  of  the 
higher  classes,  while  the  newspapers 
and  debating  clubs  excited  every- 
where a  spirit  of  intpiiry  among  the 
common  people.  The  oldest  and 
most  sacred  things  were  questioned; 
and,  in  France  especially,  neither 
Church  nor  State  was  in  a  condi- 
tion to  bear  questioning.  The  na- 
tional religion  had  become  merely 
a  splendid  cloak  for  wickedness; 
while  the  government  seemed  to 
exist  only  to  provide  gayety  and 
luxury  for  the  court,  caring  nothing 
for  the  intolerable  miseries  of  the 
people. 

678.  Louis  XVI.  was  a  good,  but 
rather  dull,  prince  —  earnestly  wishing  to  reform  the  evils 
of  his  government,  but  knowing  how  as  little  as  did  that 
princess  of  his  family,  who,  being  told  that  thousands  of 
peasants  were  starving  to  death,  exclaimed  "Poor  things! 
If  there  is  no  bread,  why  do  you  not  give  them  cake?" 
As  a  last  resort,  the  States-general  —  /.  a,  the  three 
**  Estates,"  or  orders  of  Nobles, -Clergy,  and  Commons — 
were  summoned  to  meet  at  Versailles,  in  May,  1789. 

(379) 


The  "Sans  Culottes." 


38o  MODERN  HISTORY. 

679.  The  Assembly  numbered  more  than  a  thousand, 
and  included  some  of  the  wisest  and  best  men  in  France. 
They  struck  at  the  root  of  the  prevailing  misery  by  taxing 
clergy,  nobles,  and  even  the  royal  domains  (§639),  throw- 
ing the  burdens  of  the  state  on  those  who  derived  most 
benefit  from  it.  But  the  abuses  of  a  thousand  years  could 
not  be  so  easily  cleared  away,  though  a  mania  for  change 
seemed  suddenly  to  seize  the  Assembly.  A  duke  and  a 
viscount  moved  the  abolition  of  all  tides  and  privileges 
belonging  to  the  nobles.  Serfdom,  too,  was  abolished; 
offices  in  the  army  and  the  state  were  thrown  open  to  all 
ranks;  and  all  religions  were  made  equal  before  the  law. 
A  medal  was  struck,  representing  Louis  XVI.  as  the 
restorer  of  French  liberty;  and  a  solemn  Te  Deum  was 
sung  to  celebrate  the  hopes  of  the  nation. 

680.  Already,  however,  a  dangerous  and  desperate  class 
of  men  had  become  conscious  of  their  power  —  men  who 
thought  that  liberty  meant  the  supremacy  of  their  passions. 
A  furious  mob  stormed  and  demolished  the  Bastile,  a 
grim  old  fortress,  which  had  been  the  scene  of  many 
cruel  imprisonments,  but  which  now  contained  only  a 
garrison  of  invalid  soldiers.  Another  riotous  company, 
composed  largely  of  women,  took  the  road  to  Versailles, 
where  the  Assembly  was  sitting,  and  where  the  royal 
family  was  residing.  They  forced  the  palace,  and  would 
have  murdered  the  queen  but  for  the  intervention  of 
Lafayette,^  who  commanded  the  National  Guard.  The 
king  and  queen,  with  their  children,  were  escorted  to 
Paris  by  the  whole  mob  —  the  heads  of  their  murdered 
guards  being  borne  on  pikes  beside  them. 

681.  Most  of  the  nobles  and  princes  of  the  blood  now 
quitted  France,  leaving  the  king  to  his  fate.  His  own 
attempt  to  escape  with  his  family  was  in  vain.  They  were 
arrested  and  brought  back  to  a  brutal  imprisonment.  The 
Assembly,    having    finished    its    work    of    making    a    new 


THE  JACOBIN  CLUB,  38 1 

constitution  for  France,  was  dissolved,  and  was  succeeded 
by  a  Legislative  Assembly,  composed  wholly  of  different 
members.  The  Girondists,  so  called  from  the  district 
whence  most  of  them  came,  were  the  leaders.  They 
desired  a  constitutional  monarchy,  like  that  of  England, 
or,  at  most,  a  well-ordered  republic,  but  they  had  to  seek 
the  favor  of  the  mob  by  many  unwise  measures.  ' 

682.  The  Jacobin  Club  now  possessed  an  immense  power 
in  France,  and  its  journals  and  almanacs  made  it  the 
terror  of  all  Europe  —  advocating,  as  they  did,  the  over- 
throw of  all  existing  institutions,  and  a  revolt  against  all 
authority,  human  and  divine.  Under  their  influence,  the 
Reign  of  Terror  began  in  Paris,  with  the  September 
Massacres  of  1792.  A  tiger-like  thirst  for  blood  seized 
the  mob,  who  broke  open  asylums  and  prisons,  and 
murdered  all  whom  they  could  find  —  priests,  women  and 
children,  paupers  and  lunatics.  The  king  and  his  family 
were  thrown  into  the  gloomy  prison  of  the  Temple.  The 
beautiful  Princess  de  Lamballe,  the  intimate  friend  and  late 
attendant  of  the  queen,  was  immured  for  a  few  days  in  the 
prison  of  La  Force,  and  then  brutally  beheaded.  Three 
thousand  persons,  suspected  of  favoring  the  king,  were 
dragged  from  their  beds  by  night  and  hurried  to  the  dun- 
geon, and  from  there  to  the  guillotine. 

683.  The  Mountain  —  so  the  Jacobins  were  called  from 
the  high  seats  they  occupied  —  became  supreme  in  the 
Convention  which  succeeded  the  Legislative  Assembly. 
"Louis  Capet"  was  tried  by  the  Convention,  and  found 
guilty  of  various  crimes  against  his  people.  Some  would 
have  imprisoned  or  exiled  him  for  life,  but  a  majority, 
and  among  them  his  kinsman,  Philip  Egalitd  —  so  called 
since  his  title  of  Duke  of  Orleans  had  been  abolished — 
voted  for  immediate  execution. 

684.  On  a  frosty  morning  in  January,  1793,  Louis  XVL 
was  led  out  to  die.     A  sea  of  silent  faces  surrounded  the 


382  MODERN  HiSTOkY. 

guillotine.  The  king  was  about  to  address  them,  but  his 
voice  was  drowned  in  the  roll  of  drums.  One  faithful 
friend,  the  Abbe  Edgeworth,  stood  beside  him  to  the  last. 
When  his  head  had  fallen  beneath  the  fatal  knife,  some 
of  the  crowd,  more  brutal  than  the  rest,  dipped  pikes  and 
staves  in  the  blood  and  marched  away,  shouting  ' '  Long 
live  the  Republic  !  " 

685.  The  queen  was  guillotined  the  next  October.  Her 
little  son,  whom  royalists  called  Louis  XVIL,  became  idiotic 
through  fright,  hunger,  and  neglect,  and  is  supposed  to 
have  died  in  his  wretched  dungeon.  Some  people  believe 
a  happier  story:  that  he  was  secretly  conveyed  to  a  home 
among  the  American  forests,  where  he  grew  up  to  be  a 
humble  missionary  to  the  Indians,  and  learned  of  his  high 
birth  in  his  old  age  from  a  grandson  of  Philip  Egalite. 

686.  The  Girondists  were  the  next  to  fall.  Their  leaders 
were  guillotined,  and  with  them  Madame  Roland, ^  whose 
genius  and  spirit  had  done  much  to  inspire  the  party. 
The  three  leaders  of  the  Jacobins  were  Marat,  Danton, 
and  Robespierre.  The  first  was  a  brutal  wretch,  whose 
ferocity  would  have  better  suited  a  bloodhound  than  a 
man.  A  noble-hearted  woman,  Charlotte  Corday^by  name, 
devoted  her  life  to  the  rescue  of  her  country  from  this 
monster.  From  her  home  in  Normandy  she  hastened  to 
Paris,  gained  admission  to  the  house  of  Marat,  and  stabbed 
him  to  the  heart;  then,  with  perfect  calmness  gave  herself 
up  to  the  guillotine. 

687.  But  France  could  not  be  saved  by  such  means. 
The  storm  of  passion  became  wilder  than  ever.  Christi- 
anity itself  was  abolished  by  law;  and  over  the  gates  of 
cemeteries  was  written  "Death  is  an  eternal  sleep."  A 
"goddess  of  Reason"  was  carried  in  pompous  procession 
through  the  streets,  and  enthroned  at  Notre  Dame.  A 
more  innocent  sign  of  the  general  rage  for  destruction, 
was  the   abolition   of  old   names   for  months  and  days  of 


THE  REIGN  OF  TERROR,  3^3 


the  week,  and  the  substitution  of  new  and  fanciful  ones. 
All  events  were  now  dated  from  the  rise  of  the  French 
Republic,  September  22,  1792. 

688.  Danton  at  length  wearied  of  the  carnival  of  blood- 
shed, but  his  attempt  to  arrest  it  only  carried  him  and  his 
associates  to  the  guillotine.  Robespierre  reigned  for  three 
months  over  the  Revolutionary  Tribunal,  which  placed  the 
lives  of  the  whole  French  nation  at  his  disposal,  ^\'ith 
all  his  crimes  this  man  was  not  an  atheist,  and  he  made 
the  Convention  pass  a  decree  affirming  the  existence  of 
God,  and  the  immortality  of  the  soul.  But  the  butchery 
of  the  guillotine  went  on  with  more  method  and  less 
interruption  than  ever  before.  At  last  some  few  found 
courage  to  conspire  against  him;  he  and  eighty 
of  his  accomplices  were  brought  to  the  scaffold, 
and  as  his  head  fell,  a  joyful  shout  arose  from  the  multi- 
tude, declaring  tliat  the  Reign  of  Terror  was  ended. 

68g.  The  Convention  had  declared  itself  the  ''friend  of 
all  peoples,  but  the  enemy  of  all  governments."  A  grand 
Coalition  of  nearly  all  the  powers  of  Europe  was  now  in 
arms  to  put  down  so  dangerous  a  neighbor,  and  its  forces 
were  increased  by  many  of  the  emigrated  princes  and 
nobles  (§681).  The  French  seaport  of  Toulon  revolted 
against  the  Republic,  and  received  16,000  soldiers  of  the 
Coalition  into  its  forts.  The  Convention  declared  that  it 
must  be  retaken,  or  the  French  general  commanding  the 
besiegers  must  be  guillotined.  At  this  point,  a  young 
Corsican  captain  of  artillery^ showed  how,  by  seizing  a  little 
fort  called  the  **  Needle,"  the  English  position  could  be 
"turned  inside  out,"  and  the  place  taken.  The  old  general 
was  amazed  at  his  subaltern's  presumption;  but  any  thing 
was  better  than  the  guillotine;  the  advice  was  followed. 
A  "tiger-spring"  by  the  Corsican  and  his  followers  secured 
the  fort;  the  allies  abandoned  'I'oulon;  and  Napoleon  Bona- 
parte had  won  his  place  in  history. 


384  MODERN  HISTORY. 

690.  The  Revolution  had  now  plunged  France  into 
greater  poverty  and  misery  than  even  Louis  XIV.  had 
done  —  the  rich  being  exiled  or  massacred,  the  poor 
without  employment.  Paris  was  starving :  the  mass  of 
the  people  had  only  two  ounces  of  bread  and  a  handful 
of  rice  dealt  out  daily  to  each  by  the  government.  The 
royalists  of  the  western  coast  proclaimed  Louis  XVIIL  as 
their  king,  and  asked  aid  of  the  allies;  and  even  the 
drowning  of  15,000  people,  at  Nantes,  by  order  of  the 
Convention,  did  not  put  an  end  to  this  counter-revolution. 

691.  A  new  and  better  government  was  established  at 
Paris  in  1795,  though  not  without  a  "whiff  of  gunpowder" 
from  the  cannon  of  General  Bonaparte,  who  had  been 
called  to  the  defense  of  the  capital.  A  Directory  of  five 
persons  was  intrusted  with  the  execution  of  laws,  which 
were  made  by  two  Councils,  resembling  our  Senate  and 
House  of  Representatives.  Something  like  order  and  pros- 
perity was  now  restored;  the  rule  of  the  rabble  ceased, 
and  respectable  people,  who  had  fled  from  the  Reign  of 
Terror,  returned. 

692.  Meanwhile  the  French  armies  had  been  victorious 
in  the  Netherlands,  where,  indeed,  they  met  little  resistance. 
The  existing  governments  were  exchanged  for  the  Belgian 
and  Batavian  Republics,  which  allied  themselves  with 
France.  In  1796,  Bonaparte's  first  campaign  in  Italy 
astonished  the  world.  Perhaps  it  astonished  himself,  by 
proving  what  tireless  energy  and  an  indomitable  will  can 
achieve;  for  he  dated  from  his  tremendous  passage  of 
the  bridge  at  Lodi,  swept  by  the  Austrian  cannon,  that 
wonderful  career  which  made  him  master  of  continental 
Europe. 

693.  All  northern  Italy  was  now  subdued  by  his  arms — 
including  the  Venetian  Republic,  which  had  stood  for  1345 
years — and,  invading  Austria  from  the  southward,  he  ad- 
vanced within  a  few  days'  march  of  Vienna. 


MAP  No.  XIII. 

BRITISH   WRITERS  OF  THE   NINE- 
TEENTH  CENTURY, 


John  Keats,  1795-1820:  "Endymion,"  "Hyperion,"  etc. 
Percy  Bysshe  Shelley,  1792-1822:  Poems. 
Lord  Byron,  1788-1824:  "  Childe  Harold,"  etc. 
Sir  Walter  Scott,  1771-1832  :  "Waverly  Novels,"  Poems,  etc. 
Samuel  Taylor  Coleridge,  17 72-1 834:  Poems,  Essays,  etc. 
Thomas  Arnold,  1795-1842  :  "  History  of  Rome,"  etc. 
Robert  Southey,  17  74-1 843  :  **  Curse  of  Kehama,"  etc. 
Thomas  Campbell,  1 777-1 844:   "  Pleasures  of  Hope,"  etc. 
William  Wordsworth,  1770-1850:   *' The  Excursion,"  etc. 
Thomas    Moore,     1779-1852:     ''Irish    Melodies,"    "  Lalla 

Rookh,"  etc. 
Samuel  Rogers,  1763-1855  :   "  Pleasures  of  Memory,"  etc. 
Felicia  Hemans,  1 793-1 855  :   "  Forest  Sanctuary,"  etc. 
Leigh  Hunt,  1 784-1859:  Essays,  Poems,  etc. 
Thomas    Babington    Macaulay,    1800-1859:     "History    of 

England,"  "  Essays,"  "  Lays  of  Ancient  Rome." 
Elizabeth  Barrett  Browning,  1 809-1 861  :  Poems. 
Wm.  Makepeace  Thackeray,  1811-1861:  "Pendennis,"  etc. 
Walter  Savage  Landor,    1775-1864:   "  Imaginary  Con  versa 

tions,"  etc. 
HenryHartMilman,  1 791-1868:  "Hist,  of  Latin  Christianity." 
Charles  Dickens,  1812-1870:  "  Pickwick  Papers,"  etc. 
Thomas  Carlyle,  1795-1881  :   "French  Revolution,"  etc. 
Alfred  Tennyson,   1810-:    "In  Memoriam,"  "Idyls  of  the 

King,"  and  other  poems. 
Robert  Browning,  181 2-  :  "  Bells  and  Pomegranates,"  etc. 
Philip  James  Bailey,  1816-:  "  Festus,"  etc. 
James  Anthony  Froude,  1818-:   "History  of  England,     ci( . 
Edward  Freeman  :   "  History  of  the  Norman  Conquest,"  etc. 
"George  Eliot"  (Mrs.  Lewes):  "Adam  Bede,"  etc. 


aO                 IS                 so                 SS                 40                   49 

W                     Aft 

n 

31" 

■    ■  '  Jk     -=-\ ^iHk«~  \    k       \ 

^■=a^K^BB=mn=SMK._     *■■-     1^        1 

i 

^^7r^ujr^\^ 

CP 

y- 

Lr   VwJl      >1     H     ) 

A 

r  N^vWiil       «w«,.i^n\  U 

^ ' 

1  '^ifMlMKlik    ^'S?     !\ 

«?   ' 

^ 

3 

*^^        >^^LA2-----r<r^  S — 

ui  i^ii'g~riixi.i  ^7  ,,o\  V 

V         \    y^-'-iJt''"'"'^  ><*•*    ^' 

^ 

^l^^^lkArlV 

^frCu? 

y^\  ^J    \ 

t» 

^l^^denj^        -^^      —           '^m^J            ^         \^                 ^ 

^><$^.5c^         Piw*              W     .^  ^.-A-— 

|-i/-wr»T-^     r     r-  ri.r7/),A     ")  f                 \      ,/-~~    ^ 

iop  0 

i_^Stiic-T«-5 — :;n»i*»*^  s       \             — s^  \ 

4> 

rT^|Sj;"V^T\    if\  .>- 

3Sfe?«^   ^  rL^^W-sT^  \V\    V  &^  id 

i^^.^^C^^^^^^i  \.. 

r  ife5s5^'>'  1^%^*'^  ?**^^  f     ^   V 

"^>--^          \ 

^t     fr^-^^ri^vf^'^'"  "T^                          ^tV"^ 

\^       '    '         T 

'J?^^^ -^ rPS>    ,    ;    V       1    «#                                            \       « 

T.    X         \       \\,            V      i 

^i^«Q^*i^*%g^  t  \     .  c  ^M 

IP 

«8n£ 

*            _)    '         "'mS^-iJJ'^'-'^'^          ^^       \  1*                                 \ 

*         ^,Afl•„o»^^--o-^^%' 

V      ^ 

V  Se*i^i*  '^^^'^iMjitftf^' '"  ff     ^\              ^j*--— "^mS^ 

"^^ 

^rl%c^^:»^\   \//^.^^ 

^^       "rf 

"/T--^ 

^   -^^^/■-''&^d4r^  Vi 

?> 

^                   '!lfei»?iriir"^v5SL 

""-^^^        ^^^^^^^\^^ 

\  1/ '^/i  .«<*  \ 

■^     M^SSI^^^^'^'^^^ 

211                                    25                                     ») 

a5                                         40 

INVENTIONS  AND    PUBLIC  WORKS. 


Steam  Engine  patented  by  James  Watt     .         .  A.  D.  1769. 

Hargreave's  Spinning  Jenny  patented        .         .         .1770. 

First  Power  Loom  patented  by  Cartwright         .         .      1785. 

Sewing  Machine,  Saint's,  patented  in  England         .     1790. 

Cotton-gin  by  Eli  Whitney i793- 

Trevethick's  Steam  Locomotive  used  in  Welsh  mines     1802. 

Steamboat  Clermont  carried  passengers  from  New 

York  to  Albany 1807. 

London  Times  first  printed  by  Steam  Power  Press,  Nov.  18 14. 

Streets  of  London  and  Paris  lighted  by  Gas     .         .      181 5. 

Steamship  Savannah  crossed  the  Atlantic        .         .     181 9. 

Passenger  Trains  first  moved  by  Steam  in  England 

and  United  States 1829. 

Sewing  Machine,  Thimonnier's,  patented  in  France       1830. 

Sun  Pictures  made  by  Daguerre       ....      1839. 

Electro-magnetic  Telegraph,  Baltimore  to  Washington     1844. 

Sewing  Machine,  Elias  Howe's  practical  improvement  1846. 

Submarine  Cable,  Dover  to  Calais  ....      1850. 

Photo-engraving  by  Talbot       .         .         .         .         .1852. 

Spectrum  Analysis  finds  metals  in  stars  and  sun    18 14-1860. 

Submarine  Cable,  Ireland  to  Newfoundland     .    1858,  1866. 

Suez  Canal,  Mediterranean  to  Red  Sea,  opened  .     Nov.  1869. 

Pacific  Railway  completed        .....      1869. 

Telegraphic  wires  completed,  London  to  Bombay    .      1870. 

Mont  Cenis  Tunnel,  7^  miles  long,  France  to  Pied- 
mont     Sept.  1 87 1. 

Hoosac  Tunnel,  4^  m.  long,  in  Massachusetts  .     Nov.  1873. 

Telephones  patented  in  England  and  U.  S.        .         .      1874. 

Phonograph  improved  by  Edison     .         .         .         .1877. 


NAPOLEON  BONAPARTE,  385 

By  the  peace  of  Campo  Formio,  the  Emperor  Francis  II. 
received  the  Venetian  territory  in  exchange  for  the  Austrian 
Netherlands,  which  were  now  the  Belgian  Republic. 

694.  The  Coalition  being  thus  dissolved,  England  alone 
remained  at  war  with  France,  and  the  Directory  resolved 
to  strike  a  blow  at  her  possessions  in  the  East.  For  this 
purpose   Bonaparte    sailed,  with   a   great    army, 

to    Egypt,    occupied    Alexandria,    and    gained  "  '^^ ' 

Cairo  by  a  furious  battle  with  the  Mamelukes,  on  the  plain 
of  the  Pyramids.  The  English  admiral,  Nelson,^  following 
with  his  fleet,  destroyed  almost  all  the  French  vessels  in 
the  Bay  of  Aboukir.  He  was  rewarded  by  the  title  of 
"Baron  Nelson  of  the  Nile."  In  spite  of  his  losses,  Bona- 
parte pushed  on  into  Syria,  and  captured  Gaza  and  Jaffa. 
Acre,  however,  withstood  him,  and,  a  plague  breaking  out, 
he  returned  to  Egypt,  where  he  gained  a  victory  over  the 
Turks,  and  then  sailed  for  France. 

695.  Arriving  at  Paris,  he  overthrew  the  Directory,  and 
made  himself  head  of  the  republic,  with  the  title  of  First 
Consul.  A  second  Coalition  of  the  European  powers  had 
now  liberated  Italy,  but  Bonaparte  reconquered 

■^  .  c    c-  1         •       1     J-  A.  D.  1800. 

It  m  a  swift  campaign  of  five  weeks,  including 
his  defeat  of  the  Austrians  at  Marengo.  General  Moreau 
had  almost  as  remarkable  success  in  Germany;  and  his 
victory  at  Hohenlinden  was  followed  by  peace  with  Austria. 
The  other  powers — England  the  last  of  all,  at  Amiens — 
made  peace  with  France. 

696.  Bonaparte  now  proved  himself  no  less  able  in 
government  than  in  war.  A  new  and  much  needed  code 
of  laws  was  compiled  by  the  best  lawyers,  with  his  advice 
and  assistance;  and  so  just  were  his  conclusions,  that 
France  has  kept  the  Code  Napoleon  under  all  the  changes 
of  government  which  she  has  undergone  since  it  was  made. 
The  Roman  Church  was  reestablished,  though  all  sects 
and    creeds   were    still    equal    before    the    laws.       150,000 

Hist.—  25. 


386  MODERN  HISTORY. 

emigrants  returned,  and  their  estates  were  restored  to  them 
as  far  as  possible. 

697.  The  Peace  of  Amiens  was  soon  broken  by  Great 
Britain;  and  Mr.  Pitt,  second  son  of  the  Great  Commoner 
(§649),  stirred  up  a  Third  CoaHtion,  of  all  the  chief 
powers,  against  France.  The  exiled  Bourbons  kept  a  secret 
army  of  assassins  about  Bonaparte;  and  both  sides  felt 
that  his  death  would  ensure  the  restoration  of  the  old 
monarchy.  This  made  the  French  people  willing  to  ex- 
change their  consulate  for  an  empire;  and,  in  May,  1804, 
a  decree  of  the  Senate,  confirmed  by  the  Legislative 
Corps,  made  Napoleon  I.  emperor  of  the  French,  the 
throne  being  declared  hereditary  in  his  family.  Pope  Pius 
VII.  came  all  the  way  from  Rome  to  crown  the  new 
Charlemagne  (§311). 

698.  Immense  preparations  were  now  made  for  an  in- 
vasion of  England;  but,  to  the  astonishment  of  the  world, 
Napoleon  suddenly  marched  his  army  into  Germany,  sur- 
prised General  Mack  at  Ulm,  and  captured  that  general's 
entire  command,  with  cannon  and  stores^  He  then  pushed 
forward  to  Vienna,  which  he  entered  in  triumph,  while 
Francis  II.  made  a  hasty  retreat.  In  the  battle  of  Auster- 
litz,  soon  afterward,  the  three  emperors  of  Russia,  Austria, 
and  the  French  were  present  with  their  armies:  Napoleon 
gained  one  of  the  most  thorough  of  all  his  victories,  and 
the  czar  and  kaiser  threw  up  the  game  in  despair. 

699.  By  the  treaty  of  Presburg,  Francis  II.  resigned  his 
last  foothold  in  Italy,  and  the  oldest  territory  of  his  house, 
including  the  castle  and  county  of  Hapsburg  (§365). 
Soon  afterward  the  *'Holy  Roman  Empire"  was  dissolved, 
and  the  120th  of  the  Caesars  became  merely  Francis  I., 
hereditary  emperor  of  Austria,  and  king  of  Hungary  and 
Bohemia. 

700.  Lord  Nelson  fought  his  last  battle  off  Cape  Trafal- 
gar, in  Portugal,  October,   1805;  destroying  the  French  and 


THE  BERLIN  DECREE,  387 

Spanish  fleets,  and  thus  securing  to  England  the  supremacy 
of  the  seas.  He  was  struck  by  a  ball  early  in  the  action. 
Drawing  his  cloak  over  the  decorations  he  wore,  so  that 
his  men  might  not  know  him,  he  lay  three  hours  in  mortal 
agony  while  the  battle  raged  about  him.  At  last  he  was 
told  that  a  signal  victory  had  been  gained,  and  died,  ex- 
claiming "Thank  God!     I  have  done  my  duty!" 

701.  The  King  of  Prussia's  weak  and  timid  policy  made 
him  a  mere  dupe  of  Napoleon,  who  first  forced  him  to 
accept  Hanover,  in  order  to  plunge  him  into  a  war  with 
England,  and  then  took  it  away  from  him  when  another 
arrangement  seemed  more  to  the  advantage  of  the  con- 
queror. Frederic  William  HI.  had  lost  the  friendship  of 
the  other  powers  by  seeking  the  favor  of  Napoleon,  and 
he  now  had  to  stand  almost  alone  against  him.  •The 
French  legions  moved  northward  with  their  customary 
swiftness,   and  by  the   two  victories  of  Jena 

and  Auerstadt,  which  were  gained  on  the 
same  day,  captured  or  destroyed  almost  the  entire  Prussian 
army.  Several  strong  fortresses  surrendered  to  the  French; 
and,  in  less  than  a  year  from  Napoleon's  seizure  of  the 
Austrian  capital,  he  was  entering  that  of  Prussia  as  a 
conqueror.  The  sword  of  Frederic  the  Great  was  sent  to 
Paris  as  a  trophy. 

702.  At  this  point  Napoleon  published  his  famous 
"Berlin  Decree,"  forbidding  all  commerce  and  intercourse 
with  Great  Britain.  By  attacking  the  source  of  England's 
wealth,  he  hoped  to  destroy  the  opposition  to  his  suprem- 
acy; for  he  well  knew  that  the  other  nations  could  not 
long  continue  at  war  with  him,  but  for  the  never-failing 
supply  of  British  gold.  His  Continental  System,  however, 
did  more  harm  to  the  continent  than  to  England.  George 
in.  replied  to  the  Berlin  Decree  by  an  Order  in  Council, 
declaring  a  blockade  of  all  ports  in  Europe  from  which 
the  British  flag  was  excluded,  and  directing  his  shipmasters 


388  MODERN  HISTORY. 

to  seize  and  search  all  vessels  which  they  found  approach- 
ing those  ports. 

703.  Russian  armies  soon  came  to  the  relief  of  the 
Prussians;  and,  in  the  terrible  battle  of  Eylau,  inflicted 
such  losses  upon  the  French,  that  Napoleon  offered  terms 
of  peace.  These  were  refused,  and  soon  afterward  he 
was  decidedly  victorious  at  Friedland,  while  the  great 
fortress  of  Dantzic  was  taken  by  his  troops.  The  czar 
now  proposed  peace,  and  met  Napoleon  on  a  raft,  moored 
midway  in  the  Niemen  River,  which  separated  his  dominion 
from  Prussia.  Alexander  was  filled  with  admiration  for 
the  military  genius  of  his  late  opponent,  and  for  a  time 
they  were  good  friends.  The  poor  king  of  Prussia  was 
deprived  of  half  his  dominions,  part  of  which  went  to 
make  the  new  kingdom  of  Westphalia,  for  Jerome  Bona- 
parte. Two  other  brothers  of  Napoleon  were  recognized 
by  the  czar  as  kings,  the  one  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  and  the 
other  of  Holland. 

704.  Portugal  meanwhile  disobeyed  the  Berlin  Decree, 
and  General  Junot  was  ordered  to  put  an  end  to  her 
existence.  It  was  done,  and  the  Braganzas,  quitting  their 
European  kingdom,  established  a  vaster  empire  in  Brazil. 
French  troops,  about  the  same  time,  marched  into  Rome, 
and  overthrew  the  pope's  temporal  power.  Spain  was  the 
next  victim.  Her  Bourbon  king,  Charles  IV.,  cared  more 
for  his  lazy  ease  than  for  the  duty  he  owed  his  people. 
He  sold  his  kingdom  to  Napoleon  for  a  castle  and  a 
pension;  his  sons,  refusing  to  do  likewise  with  their  inher- 
itance, were  imprisoned  at  Valen^ay;  and  the  crown  of 
Spain  was  bestowed  on  Joseph  Bonaparte.  He  resigned 
that  of  the  Two  Sicilies  to  his  brother-in-law,  Murat,  and 
was  crowned  at  Madrid,  in  January,  1809. 

705.  The  Spaniards  felt  themselves  wronged  and  insulted 
by  this  bargain.  They  organized  a  new  government,  at 
Seville,  in   the   name   of   Ferdinand   VII.,  the    eldest    son 


TREATY  OF  SCHl^NBRUNr^.  389 

of  Charles,  and  besought  the  help  of  England.  Portugal 
followed  their  example;  and  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley,  landing 
at  Mondego  Bay,  defeated  Junot  so  severely  that  he  had 
to  quit  the  country  with  all  that  remained  of  his  army. 
The  English  were  almost  equally  successful  in  Spain,  until 
Napoleon  came  in  person  to  his  brother's  relief  Then 
his  imperious  will,  as  usual,  swept  all  before  it,  and  the 
British  army,  under  Sir  Jolin  Moore,  was  driven  from  the 
peninsula.  Before  embarking,  they  defeated  the  French  at 
Corunna,  but  with  the  loss  of  their  brave  leader. 

706.  The  Austrian  emperor,  always  bitterly  enraged  at 
tlie  treaty  of  Presburg  (^699),  thought  his  time  for  re- 
venge had  come  while  his  great  enemy  was  far  away  in 
Spain.  Hastily  collecting  a  force  twice  as  numerous  as 
the  French,  he  pushed  into  Bavaria.  But  his  movements 
were  watched.  Almost  as  swiftly  as  a  thunderbolt  Napo- 
leon traversed  France,  entered  Germany,  and  by  five 
battles,  fought  in  five  successive  days,  cleared  his  way  to 
Vienna,  which  surrendered  to  him.  May  12,  1809.  The 
treaty  of  Schonbrunn,  which  followed,  was  more  humili- 
ating to  Austria  than  even  that  of  Presburg  had  been. 
The  next  year  Francis  I.  accepted  his  conqueror  as  a 
son-in-law.  Napoleon,  having  dissolved  his  marriage  with 
Josephine,  espoused  the  archduchess  Maria  Louisa.  In 
181 1,  a  son  was  born  to  him,  who  received  the  title  of 
King  of  Rome. 

707.  King  Louis  of  Holland,  having  offended  his  brother 
by  opposing  the  restrictions  on  trade  which  were  ruining 
his  people  (§702),  retired  into  Austria,  and  his  kingdom 
was  annexed  to  France.  The  czar  was  equally  injured 
by  the  "Continental  System,"  and  by  many  other  acts  of 
Napoleon.  He  now  joined  with  Sweden  —  whose  regent 
and  crown-prince  was  Bernadotte,  a  former  general  of 
Napoleon  —  in  resisting  that  oppressive  system;  and  a  new 
war  broke   out,  on  a  grander  scale  than  even  those  that 


390  MODERN  HISTORY. 


had  preceded  it.  Austria  and  Prussia  were  now  allies  of 
France;  Great  Britain  and  Sweden,  of  Russia.  Napoleon, 
while  mustering  his  forces,  summoned  a  throng  of  princes 
to  meet  him  at  Dresden,  and  indulged  his  pride  by  such 
a  display  of  imperial  grandeur  as  Europe  had  never  seen 
before. 

708.  Then,  with  half  a  million  of  men,  splendidly  equip- 
ped, he  marched  into  Russia.  But  the  forces  of  nature 
seemed  all  arrayed  against  him.  A  terrible  hurricane, 
followed  by  floods  and  excessive  cold,  swept  away  multi- 
tudes of  horses  and  men.  Space  itself,  which  his  swift, 
decisive  movements  had  hitherto  overcome,  now  mastered 
him.  The  Russians  retreated,  destroying  all  their  harvests, 
and  burning  towns  through  which  the  French  must  pass; 
and  when  he  arrived  at  Moscow,  the  ancient  capital,  it, 
too,  was  silent  and  deserted.  The  French  took  possession ; 
but  in  the  night,  fires,  kindled  by  long  trains,  burst  forth 
in  every  part  of  the  city. 

709.  Conquered  by  frost  and  flame,  Napoleon  at  length 
ordered  a  retreat.  The  track  of  his  grand  army  was 
strewn  with  corpses  like  one  long  battle-field.  In  a  single 
night,  thousands  of  men  and  all  the  remaining  horses  were 
frozen  to  death.  Troops  of  Cossacks  harassed  the  march; 
and,    arriving   at   the    River    Beresina,    the   French   had   to 

cross    a    bridge    under    furious    fire    from    the 
Russian    cannon.       Nine-tenths    of    the    grand 

army  were    left   dead    upon    Russian    plains,  and    the    rest 

were  frightfully  maimed  and  shattered. 

710.  The  enemies  and  unwilling  allies  of  Napoleon  took 
courage  from  his  misfortunes;  and  the  whole  continent  was 
engaged  in  the  war  of  18 13.  Napoleon's  extraordinary 
genius  was  never  more  manifest  than  in  this  season  of 
tremendous  difficulties.  Wherever  he  commanded  in  per- 
son— at  Lutzen,  Bautzen,  and  Dresden — great  victories  were 
won;    but  his  generals  were   almost   every-where   defeated. 


THE   HUNDRED  DAYS.  ^p. 

At  length,  in  a  three  days'  battle  at  Leipsic,  the  allies  were 
victorious,  and  Napoleon  was  compelled  to  retreat. 

711.  A  crowd  of  deposed  princes  —  among  them  Pope 
Pius  VII. — now  returned  to  their  deserted  thrones.  Early 
in  1 8 14,  the  allies  were  ready  to  move  from  the  north,  east, 
and  south  upon  Paris.  Still  Napoleon's  movements  were 
as  firm  and  decisive  as  ever.  Though  immensely  out- 
numbered by  his  enemies,  he  still  acted  upon  his  old 
principle  of  so  massing  his  troops  as  to  be  always  the 
strongest  at  the  point  of  attack.  In  this  way  he  drove 
back  Bluchcr,  the  Prussian  general,  defeated  the  Aus- 
trians,  and  was  even  carrying  the  war  into  Germany, 
when  he  heard  that  the  allies  were  marching  directly 
upon  Paris. 

712.  After  a  battle  in  the  suburbs,  the  czar  and  the 
king  of  Prussia  entered  that  city,  followed  by  their  vic- 
torious armies.  Wellington  was  on  his  march  from  Spain, 
having  completed  the  Peninsular  War  by  the  restoration 
of  Ferdinand  VII.  A  congress  of  the  allies  disposed  of 
France  and  her  chosen  ruler  at  their  will.  Napoleon 
received  the  little  island  of  Elba,  and  a  pension,  in  ex- 
change for  his  empire.  France  was  deprived  of  all  her 
conquests  since  1792,  and  was  forced  to  accept  Louis 
XVIII.,  a  brother  of  the  guillotined  monarch  (§684),  as 
her  king. 

713.  The  next  spring,  Napoleon,  quitting  Elba,  landed 
almost  alone  in  the  south  of  France.  He  was  soon  joined 
by  many  devoted  adherents.  The  king's  brother,  sent 
with  an  army  to  oppose  him,  had  to  make  an  unprincely 
retreat;  for,  at  sight  of  the  familiar  and  idolized  figure  in 
the  gray  surtout,  nearly  his  whole  force  broke  into  shouts 
of  ''''Vive  t EmpereurV  and  passed  over  to  Napoleon's  side. 
The  Bourbons  fled  from  Paris,  and  the  emperor  reigned 
a  hundred  days  with  greater  energy  than  ever.  Every 
nerve  was  strained  to  provide  new  armies  for  the  defense 


392  MODERN   HISTORY. 

of  the  restored  empire.  The  multitude  of  mere  boys  who 
thronged  the  recruiting  offices,  at  once  proved  the  devo- 
tion of  the  people,  and  showed  how  the  strength  of  France 
had  been  exhausted  by  twenty  years  of  almost  perpetual 
war.  The  graves  of  their  fathers  were  scattered  the  length 
of  Europe,  from  Malaga  to  Moscow.  The  allies  also 
mustered  their  forces,  and  in  the  great  battle  of  Waterloo, 
Wellington,®  the  British,  and  Blucher,  the  Prussian  com- 
mander, gained  a  victory  which  overthrew  the  Empire  of 
the  French.  Napoleon  tried  to  secure  the  crown  to  his 
son,  who  was  now  four  years  old;  but  the  Senate  insisted 
upon  his  abdicating  without  conditions.  The  allies  refused 
to  make  any  treaty  with  France,  until  the  emperor  should 
be  placed  in  their  keeping.  He  then  attempted  to  make 
his  escape  to  America,  but  the  coast  was  too  well  guarded 
by  British  cruisers,  and  he  was  forced  to  surrender  himself 
to  one  of  their  officers.  He  was  not  permitted  to  touch 
the  soil  of  England,  but  was  conveyed,  as  a  prisoner,  to 
the  rocky  islet  of  St.  Helena,  where  he  died,  less  than  six 
years  later.  May  5th,  1821. 

Trace,  on  Map  13,  the  campaigns  of  Napoleon. 

Read  Carlyle's  French  Revolution,  and  Dyer's  Modern  Europe  ; 
Taine's  *'  Revolution ; "  Mignet's,  Von  Sybel's,  or  Thiers'  History 
of  the  French  Revolution;  Thiers'  "  Consulate  and  Empire  ; "  Lan- 
frey's  History  of  Napoleon  I. 

For  illustration,  read  Dickens's  "Tale  of  Two  Cities"  and  Victor 
Hugo's  "Ninety-three." 

NOTES. 

1.  Gilbert  Motier,  Marquis  de  Lafayette,  born  in  1757,  was  one  of  the 
most  wealthy  and  powerful  of  the  young  nobles  of  France,  when,  at 
the  age  of  19,  he  devoted  his  talents  to  the  cause  of  American  Independ- 
ence. The  French  government  had  not  yet  recognized  the  United  States 
as  a  nation,  but  was  nominally  at  peace  with  Great  Britain,  so  that  it 
was  against  the  wishes  of  his  king  (i^().'}8)  tluit  Lafayette  fitted  out  a  ship 
at  his  own  expense,  and,  sailing  for  America,  accepted  the  rank  of 
major-general  in  the  colonial  army.  He  was  wounded  at  the  lirandy- 
wine,  and  received  the  thanks  of  lX)ngress  for  his  conduct  at  Monmouth. 
Returning  to  France  in  1779,  he  brought  supplies  of  money  and  arms 
to  aid  our  cause,  whlcli  the  king  had  now  embraced.  Lafayette  liad  an 
Important  part  in  the  victory  at  Yorktown  (§  652).    He  enjoyed,  from  his 


NOJ'ES.  393 


llrst  ariivHl  in  Amoriai,  the  confldonce  jiiul  nfft'ctloii  of  WiiMhliiKton,  to 
whom  he  st'iit  thf  key  of  tlio  linstlllo— after  tlie  destruction  of  that  fort- 
ress In  17S;»-as  a  tokrn  of  his  admiration.  It  Is  still  among  the  obJoctH 
of  interest  at  Mt.  N'ernon. 

Lafayette's  servlei*  In  Anierlea  made  him  Immensely  i)opular  In 
Franet».'  As  a  member  of  the  States-Cieneral  he  drew  up  a  Deelaratlon 
of  the  HiKhts  of  Man  which  wius  adouted.  The  same  year  ho  was  plaetjd 
bv  acclamation  at  tlu>  ht?ad  of  the  militia  of  Paris,  which  t«M>k  the  mime 
o\  the  National  Uuai-d.  He  desired  for  Franc»>  u  constitutional  mon- 
archv  like  that  of  Kngland,  wltlj  perfect  guaranty's  of  the  rights  of  the 
IMNiple;  but,  In  trying  to  serve  the  best  lnt<;re.sts  of  all  parties,  lie  pleased 
none.    'J'lie  court  hateil   and  fearetl  him  for  his  Influence  with  the  peo- 

|)le;  the  republicans  suspected  him  for  his  elforts  tt)  save  the  king.  He- 
ng  placed  In  command  of  one  of  the  three  revolutionary  armies,  ho 
hjul  to  contend  at  once  against  the  Austrlans  In  Flanders  and  the  .Ja- 
cobins in  I'arls.  In  17!I2,  he  fell  Into  the  power  of  the  Austrlans,  who 
kept  him  a  prisoner  in  tho  tlungeons  of  Nelss  and  Olmiitz,  until.  In 
1797,  IJonaparte  Insisted  on  his  liberation.  He  refused  olllce  under  Na- 
iK)leon;  but.  In  1815,  he  also  opposed  tho  restoration  t)f  the  Bourbons, 
lie  freiiuently  spoke  lu  the  c;hamberof  Deputies,  and  always  in  behalf 
of  "liberty,  equality,  and  order."  In  1S2I,  ho  revisited  America,  and 
spent  al)out  a  year  In  traveling  through  the  2^1  states  of  tho  Union,  re- 
ceived every-where  with  grateful  enthushusm.  (!ongress  voted  him  SiJOOjUlM) 
as  a  recognition  of  his  services  In  the  War  of  Independence.  On  tho 
accession  of  Louis  Phillpi)e  as  king  of  the  French  (g^724,  72(5),  Lafayette 
uaid  to  him,  •*  You  know  tliat  I  am  a  IlepubUcau,  and  that  1  regaixl  the 
Constitution  of  tho  United  States  as  the  most  perieottbat  ever  existed." 
He  died,  May  20,  18.^. 

2.  Marie  Jeanne  Phlipon,  afterwanls  Madame  Roland,  one  of  the 
most  celebrate<l  of  French  women,  was  born  at  Paris,  17">1.  Her  father 
was  an  engraver,  aiul  she  received  an  uncommonly  liberal  education 
for  the  times.  Phitarch's  "Lives"  were  her  delight  from  her  ninth 
year;  from  them  she  derived  her  love  of  liberty  and  her  enthushiatlc 
admiral  k)n  for  whatever  was  great  and  noble  in  character.  In  17H0,  she 
married  M.  Roland,  then  Inspector-general  of  Manufactures;  afterwards 
as  a  Girondist,  to  hold  high  ofllce  In  the  government.  The  two  visited 
England  and  Switzerland,  where  their  love  of  constitutional  freedom 
became  even  stronger  than  before.  Mmo.  Roland,  especially,  by  her 
genius  and  the  charms  of  her  conversjition,  became  the  "  inspiring  soul  " 
of  the  Girondist  party.  When  her  husband,  in  17i>2,  was  Minister  of  tho 
Interior,  she  composed  some  of  his  must  important  state-i)apcrs.  In 
Maj'.  179;i,  having  ueen  proscribed  by  tlie  .Jacobins,  M.  Roland  took  ref- 
uge in  the  country.  His  wife  remained  In  Paris  and  was  thrown  into 
prison.  On  the  scaflbld,  recalling  her  lifelong  enthusla.sm  for  the  very 
watch-words  which  were  now  lalsely  used  for  her  condemnation,  she 
exclaimed,  "O  Liberty!    what  crimes  are  committed   in    thy  name!" 

2.  Charlotte  Corday,  born  In  Normandy,  1768,  spent  several  of  her 
early  years  In  a  convent  at  Caen,  where  she  was  noted  for  her  sweet 
and  earnest  piety.  In  appearance,  she  was  tall,  beautiful,  and  of  com- 
mandiuK  dignity.  Hhe  sympathized  warmly  with  the  new  movements 
for  popular  rlght«,  so  far  ivs  they  were  orderly  and  Just,  but  mourned 
the  proscription  of  the  Girondists  and  tho  brutal  excesses  to  which  the 
revolutionary  mania  had  run.  By  a  long  course  of  silent  meditation, 
slie  came  to  the  resolution  to  save  many  lives,  by  the  sacrlflco  of  lier 
own.    She  was  executed  in  .luly,  1793. 

4.  Napoleon  Bonaparte  was  born  at  AJaccio,  Corsica,  in  August,  1769. 
His  father  iiad  been  one  of  the  bravest  defenders  of  that  island  against 
the  French,  but  it  wa-s  con(iuere<l  a  few  months  before  Napoleon's  birth, 
so  that  he  wa-s  born  a  subject  of  the  Ik)urbons.  Before  ho  was  ten  years 
of  age,  the  little  Napoleon  quitted  his  home  for  the  military  college  at 
Brienne.  He  could  speak  only  Italian,  was  iM>or,  and  sullered  much 
from  the  rudeness  of  his  felIow-student,s;  but  he  was  diligent  In  study, 
and  gave  pn)of  already  of  those  wonderful  talents  for  war  and  adminis- 
tration, in  which  he  surpas-sed  almost  every  num  who  has  ever  lived. 
He  was  fond  of  history^  especially  delighting  in  the  writings  of  Cjesar, 
Plutarch,  and  Arrian.  His  miliUiry  education  was  completed  at  Paris, 
and  he  became  captain  of  artillery  in  February,  1792. 


394  MODERN"  HISTORY, 

The  chief  events  of  his  lite  are  narrated  in  the  text.  In  comparing 
him  with  tlie  two  or  tiiree  other  generals  of  the  first  rank  whom  History 
has  described,  it  has  been  remarked  that  Csesar  had,  perhaps,  more 
fertility  of  invention,  but  no  great  ruler  was  ever  so  completely  the 
architect  of  his  own  fortunes  as  Napoleon.  "  Cyrus  and  Alexander  each 
inherited  as  his  birthright  a  powerful  kingdom;  Hannibal  and  Csesar 
were  respectively  the  representatives  of  high  and  influential  families. 
Napoleon,  on  the  contrary,  except  his  energy  and  genius,  possessed  not 
a  single  advantage  that  might  not  have  fallen  to  the  lot  of  the  hum- 
blest citizen  of  France." 

5.  Horatio  Nelson,  born  in  Norfolk.  England,  1758,  distinguished 
himself,  even  in  boyhood,  by  his  brave,  impetuous,  and  energetic  char- 
acter. At  the  age  of  13  he  entered  the  navy,  served  some  years  in  the 
East  Indies,  and  fought  in  several  battles  of  the  American  Revolution, 
In  1793,  he  obtained  command  of  a  ship  in  the  Mediterranean  fleet,  had 
part  in  a  victory  over  the  Spaniards  four  years  later,  at  Cape  St.  Vin- 
cent, and  rose  to  the  rank  of  Rear  Admiral.  In  an  attack  on  Teneriflte, 
he  lost  his  right  arm. 

In  the  Battle  of  the  Baltic,  1801,  he  was  second  in  command  to  Sir 
Hyde  Parker,  and  his  obstinacy  won  the  day. 

Off  Cape  Trafalgar  he  encountered  40  French  and  Spanish  ships,  his 
own  numbering  only  31.  Before  the  flght  began,  he  signaled  from  his 
mast-head,  "England  expects  everj"^  man  to  do  his  duty."  Southey  pro- 
nounces liim  "  the  greatest  naval  hero  of  our  own  and  of  all  former 
times."    His  memory  is  warmly  cherished  by  tlie  English  people. 

6.  Arthur  "Wellesley,  first  Duke  of  Wellington,  was  born  in  Ireland, 
1769,  four  months  earlier  than  the  young  Corsican  who  was  to  be  his 
chief  antagonist.  He  was  educated  at  Eton,  and  at  a  military  school  in 
France,  and,  in  1787,  was  commissioned  as  ensign.  In  1794,  he  served 
in  the  Netherlands  under  the  command  of  the  Duke  of  York.  Becom- 
ing colonel  in  1796,  he  wiis  ordered  to  India,  where  his  eldest  brother, 
Lord  Mornington,  was  soon  afterward  made  Qovernor-GeneraL  War 
soon  broke  out  with  Tippoo  Sahib,  son  of  Hyder  All  (see  note  2,  Ch.  XII), 
and  Colonel  Wellesley  distinguised  himself  by  his  energy  and  sagacity, 
both  in  military  matters  and  afterwards  as  Governor  of  Seringapatam. 
Returning  to  England  in  1805,  he  was  elected  the  next  year  to  a  seat  in 
the  House  of  Commons,  and,  in  1807,  became  Chief  Secretary  for  Ireland. 
His  greatest  military  fame  was  attained  in  the  Peninsular  War.  At 
first  the  French  bore  down  all  before  them,  "  Wellington  was  aware," 
says  a  French  writer,  "  that  Fortune  could  not  change  sides  at  a  leap,  .  . 
and  that  before  acquiring  the  art  of  gaining  great  victories  it  was  neces- 
sary to  begin  by  learning  to  avoid  defeats."  By  constructing  his  triple 
lines  of  defense  at  Torres  Vedras,  near  Lisbon,  and  by  his  firm,  but  patient 
and  cautious  method  of  warfare,  profiting  by  every  blunder  of  his  adver- 
saries, he  succeeded  at  length  in  overthrowing  French  ascendency  in  Spain 
and  Portugal.  His  success  was  largely  due  to  the  confidence  which 
he  inspired  by  his  perfect  integrity  and  truthfulness.  Both  in  the 
Peninsula  and  in  France,  he  compelled  the  troops  to  respect  private 
property,  and  thus  in  time  gained  the  goodwill  of  the  people  among 
whom  he  was  obliged  to  pass.  For  his  repeated  successes  in  Spain  he 
was  raised  to  the  peerage,  first  as  Baron  Douro  of  Wellesley,  and  Viscount 
Wellington  of  Talavera,  subsequently  as  Marquis,  and  finally,  Duke  of 
Wellington. 

The  battle  of  Waterloo  was  fought  June  18,  1815.  It  was  the  object 
of  Napoleon  to  defeat  Wellington  before  Bliicher  could  arrive  with  his 
Prussian  Army;  and  to  this  end  he  put  forth  his  mightiest  eflbrts.  They 
were  vain,  for,  at  4  p.  M.  16,000  Prussians  arrived  upon  the  field,  and 
the  day  was  lost.  ^   , 

Wellington  and  the  allied  armies  entered  Paris,  July  7,  and  the  duke 
was  subsequently  appointed  to  command  the  army  of  occupation  (§715), 
which,  for  five  years— afterwards,  by  Wellington's  advice,  reduced  to 
three— was  to  keep  France  in  subjection.  In  England,  he  held  several 
high  positions  in  the  government,  of  which  he  was  for  some  years  at 
the  head;  always  distinguished  by  his  strict  Tory  or  conservative  prin- 
ciples, which  led  him  to  oppose  parliamentary  reform  (§657).  He  died 
1852;  and  his  burial  in  St.  Paul's  Cathedral  was  commemorated  by  Ten- 
nyson the  Poet  Laureate,  in  a  grand  Ode. 


CHAPTER    XIV. 

ABSOLUTISTS  AND   I.IIJKRALS  IN   EUROPE. 


A.   D. 


HE  wars  of  the  French  Revolution  were 
now  ended,  and  a  grand  congress  of  sovereigns,  or  their 
representatives,  met  at  Vienna,  to  consult  to- 
gether for  the  restoration  of  order.  The  ''bal- 
ance of  power"  which  they  then  arranged,  lasted  more 
than  forty  years. 

715.  Prussia  received  back  her  lost  territories  and  more; 
so  that  she  now  became  one  of  the  Five  Great  Powers. 
Austria  was  consoled  for  the  loss  of  the  Netherlands  by 
all  of  northern  Italy,  except  the  kingdom  of  Sardinia. 
France,  Spain,  and  Naples  were  again  subjected  to  the 
Bourbons;  and  humiliated  France  had  to  maintain  a 
foreign  army  of  150,000  men,  who  were  quartered  upon 
her  frontier,  to  keep  her  from  again  disturbing  the  general 
peace. 

716.  Thirty-nine  German  sovereigns  and  free  cities 
formed  a  new  confederation,  with  its  capital  at  Frankfort- 

(395) 


396  MODERN  HISTORY. 

on-the-Main.  Holland  and  Belgium  were  united  in  the 
kingdom  of  the  Netherlands,  with  the  Prince  of  Orange 
for  their  king.  The  Five  Great  Powers  —  Great  Britain, 
France,  Russia,  Austria,  and  Prussia — held  themselves 
responsible  for  maintaining  the  balance  of  power,  by  in- 
terfering in  behalf  of  any  state  which  might  be  injured 
and  unable  to  defend  itself. 

717.  The  czari  proposed  to  the  other  sovereigns  a 
Holy  Alliance,  binding  them  to  "remain  united  in  true 
brotherly  love;  to  govern  their  subjects  as  parents,  and  to 
maintain  religion,  peace,  and  justice."  This  promised 
well,  but  it  was  soon  found  that  the  allied  sovereigns 
meant  to  be  very  despotic  "parents,"  by  no  means  allow- 
ing their  children  to  act  or  think  for  themselves.  Hence 
arose  a  conflict  between  Absolutism  and  Liberalism,  which 
led  at  last  to  the  revolutions  of  1848. 

718.  Spain,  trying  to  throw  off  the  stupid  tyranny  of 
Ferdinand  VH. — who  had  restored  the  Inquisition  and 
all  the  abuses  of  his  ancestors  —  was  subdued  by  a  French 
army  of  100,000  men,  under  the  influence  of  the  Alliance. 
The  liberal  constitution  was  overthrown,  and  absolute  des- 
potism restored.  In  Italy  multitudes  of  Liberals  joined 
themselves  in  secret  societies  to  resist  the  Hapsburgs  in 
the  north  and  the  Bourbons  in  the  south  (§634). 

719.  That  of  the  Carbonari  (charcoal-men)  numbered 
half  a  million.  In  1820,  they  made  an  open  attack  upon 
the  government  at  Naples  in  such  force  that  the  king 
granted  all  they  asked  —  the  Spanish  "Constitution  of 
1 81 2"  and  a  Liberal  ministry.  The  Holy  Alliance  again 
interfered,  and  an  Austrian  army  restored  despotism  in 
Naples.  The  rule  of  the  Hapsburgs,  in  northern  Italy, 
was,  if  possible,  more  odious  than  that  of  the  Bourbons. 
Persons  who  were  only  suspected^  of  sympathy  with  the 
Carbonari,  suddenly  disappeared,  and  spent  the  rest  of 
their  lives  in  solitary  dungeons. 


THE  GREEK  REVOLUTION,  397 

720.  Liberalism  was   kept   alive,   in    Germany,  by  the 

youtli  in  the  Universities,  whose  high  spirits  doubtless 
taxed  the  patience  of  the  paternal  governments.  Some 
outbreak  of  eloquence,  on  the  third  centennial  of  the 
Reformation,  brought  a  reprimand  from  the  Alliance.  A 
half  crazy  student  of  Jena  thereupon  murdered  Kotzebuc,'' 
the  Russian  consul ;  and  the  sovereigns,  fancying  some 
wide-spread  conspiracy,  insisted  upon  taking  away  the 
freedom   of  the   Universities. 

721.  The  revolt  of  the  Greeks  against  the  cruel  oppres- 
sions of  the  Turks  was  met  in  the  same  spirit ;  but  that 
brave  people  persevered  until  their  independence  was  won. 
Prince  Ypsilanti,^  in  1821,  publicly  announced  that  the 
servitude  of  four  hundred  years  was  ended,  and  that 
Greece  was  determined  to  be  free.  Hundreds  of  Greek 
students  hastened  to  enroll  themselves  in  a  Sacred  Band, 
bearing  upon  their  shields  the  Spartan  motto,  ''Either 
this  or  on  this."  The  Turks  tried  to  crush  the  movement 
by  atrocious  massacres;  the  Sacred  Band  was  cut  to  pieces, 
and  the  beautiful  isle  of  Scio  was  laid  waste;  forty  thou- 
sand of  its  people  perished,  while  the  strongest  and  most 
beautiful  youth  were  dragged  away  to  the  Turkish  slave- 
markets. 

722.  The  next  year  Marco  Bozzaris*and  his  Suliote  band 
fell  upon  a  Turkish  camp  by  night  and  gained  a  complete 
victory,  with  the  loss  of  his  own  life.  Though  governments 
might  be  indifferent  or  hostile,  the  people  all  over  Europe 
were  thrilled  with  sympathy  for  the  Greeks;  money,  food 
and  clothing  were  supplied,  and  many  volunteers  sought  the 
honor  of  serving  in  their  ranks  (§656).  At  last  the  govern- 
ments of  Great  Britain,  France  and  Russia  were  moved  to 
interfere,  and  their  combined  fleets  defeated  the  Turks  in 
the  Bay  of  Navarino. 

723.  The  soul  of  the  Holy  Alliance  departed  when  Alex- 
ander I.  died,  in  1825.    His  brother  Nicholas,  who  succeeded 


398  MODERN  HISTORY. 

him,  coveted  the  Turkish  possessions  on  the  Black  Sea,  and 
his  movements  in  that  direction  forced  the  sultan  to  ac- 
knowledge the  independence  of  the  Greeks.  Prince  Otho 
of  Bavaria^ was  chosen  to  be  their  king,  under  the  influence 
of  the  allied  powers. 

724.  In  1830  the  Liberal  spirit  became  powerful  enough 
to  accomplish  several  peaceful  revolutions.  Charles  X.,  who 
had  succeeded  his  brother  Louis  XVIIL  as  king  of  France, 
offended  the  people  by  limiting  the  freedom  of  the  press 
and  of  voting.  He  was  forced  to  resign  his  crown  and 
take  refuge  in  Great  Britain.  The  duke  of  Orleans,"^  son  of 
Egalite,  was  called  to  the  throne  as  "King  of  the  French," 
with  a  liberal  constitution,  much  like  that  of  England. 

725.  Belgium  at  the  same  time  separated  from  Holland 
and  chose  Prince  Leopold  of  Saxe-Coburg  to  be  its  king. 
The  Poles  made  a  brave  but  vain  effort  to  throw  off  the 
harsh  yoke  of  the  Russians,  which  was  made  harder  to  them 
by  the  tyrannical  temper  of  the  viceroy,  the  grand-duke 
Constantine,  brother  of  the  czar.       Their  very  nationality 

was  now  blotted  out;    80,000  patriots  were  sent 
'  ^  ^^'      in    one    year    to    toil    in   the   frozen   deserts    of 
Siberia;     and    children    were    even    separated    from    their 
parents  to  be  trained  in  military  colonies. 

726.  Under  the  reign  of  Louis  Philippe,  France  enjoyed 
some  years  of  peace  and  prosperity.  Still,  the  ''citizen- 
king"  found  it  impossible  to  please  all  parties.  Strict  mon- 
archists thought  that  no  one  could  rightfully  reign  over 
France  excepting  Henry  V. ,  the  grandson  of  Charles  X. ; 
Bonapartists  longed  for  the  military  glories  of  the  Empire; 
and  a  growing  multitude  of  Liberals  desired  a  French  Re- 
public. A  severe  loss  was  felt  in  the  death  of  the  duke 
of  Orleans,  the  heir  to  the  crown,  whom  all  men  loved  and 
trusted. 

727.  The  king's  interference  in  the  Spanish  marriages 
hastened    his    fall.       Ferdinand    VH.    had    died    in    1833, 


REVOLUTION  OF   1848.  399 

leaving  only  two  little  daughters,  the  oldest  of  whom  was 
tliree  years  old.  His  brother,  Don  Carlos,  claimed  the 
crown  under  the  "Salic  Law"  (§405),  but  Louis  Philippe 
and  a  strong  party  in  Spain  upheld  the  little  ciueen,  who 
afterward  became  the  too  noted  Isabella  IL  The  French 
king  wished  to  increase  his  own  power  by  choosing  hus- 
l)ands  for  the  queen  and  her  sister.  To  the  former  he 
allotted  the  half-idiotic  Francis  of  Assis,  but  for  her  sister, 
whom  he  thought  likelier  to  live  and  reign,  he  destined 
his  own  son,  the  duke  of  Montpensier.  The  marriages 
both  took  place,  but  the  Orleans  Dynasty  was  less  benefited 
by  them  than  had  been  hoped. 

728.  The  Liberals  were  now  powerful  in  France;  and 
at  one  of  their  great  Reform  Banquets  in  the  open  air,  the 
usual  toast  to  the  king  was  omitted,  while  the  "sovereignty 
of  the  people"  was  received  with  great  applause.  The 
government  tried  to  suppress  the  next  meeting  of  this 
kind,  at  which  100,000  people  were  expected  to  be  present. 
The    guns    of    the    forts   were    pointed    inward 

,  .  ,     ,  ,  ,.  ,  Feb.,  1848. 

upon  the  city,  and  60,000   soldiers  were   ready 
to  fire  upon  the  mob.     This  aroused  the  fury  of  the  lowest 
class   of   the   people,  who,    swarming    together    from    their 
dens  and  cellars,  barricaded  the  streets  and  raised  the  cry, 
"Long  live  the  Republic!" 

729.  The  king  and  his  sons  fled,  but  the  widowed 
duchess  of  Orleans*  came  with  her  little  son  into  the  revo- 
lutionary assembly, — calm  and  undaunted,  though  weapons 
were  aimed  at  her  heart.  She  reminded  the  deputies  of 
her  husband's  exalted  character,  and  promised  that  she 
would  teach  his  son  to  be  like  him,  true  to  the  people. 
But  a  voice  from  the  tribune  cried,  "Too  late!"  and  a 
republic  was  proclaimed. 

730.  National  workshops  were  now  opened,  where  all 
who  applied  found  employment  and  wages.  But  this  plan, 
though    it    seemed    benevolent,    proved    very    dangerous; 


400  MODERN  HISTORY. 


100,000  workmen  were  soon  massed  together  in  the  public 
shops,  and  any  attempt  to  control  them  aroused  their  fury. 
The  attempt  to  abate  this  peril  by  dismissing  a  great  num- 
ber of  men  led  to  a  terrible  four  days'  battle  in  the  streets 
of  Paris.  General  Cavaignac^by  his  cool,  wise  and  prompt 
measures  restored  order.  A  new  constitution  was  now 
adopted,  and  Louis  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  ^  ^  a  nephew  of  the 
emperor,  became  president  of  the  French  Republic. 

731.  The  Liberals  were  every-where  in  arms,  especially 
in  Germany,  Hungary  and  Italy,  and  the  year  1848  was 
marked  by  revolutions  all  over  Europe.  In  a  riot  at 
Vienna,  the  war-minister  La  Tour  was  beaten  to  death  by 
the  mob,  and  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  fled,  leaving  his 
capital  in  their  hands.  He  soon  afterward  resigned  in 
favor  of  his  nephew,  Francis  Joseph  I. 

732.  The  Hungarians  revolted  against  the  long-hated 
dominion  of  the  Hapsburgs,  and  set  up  a  republic  with 
Louis  Kossuth  at  its  head.  Many  Poles,  having  no  country 
of  their  own,  became  "  soldiers  of  liberty"  and  rendered 
good  service  to  the  Hungarians,  while  the  Czar  Nicholas 
sent  armies  to  the  aid  of  his  Austrian  ally.  The  brave 
Hungarians  were  unable  to  hold  out  long  against  the  com- 
bined forces  of  despotism.  In  May,  1849,  the  brutal  field- 
marshal  Haynau,  who  had  crushed  the  revolution  in  northern 
Italy,  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  Austrian  armies,  and 
by  a  great  victory  at  Temesvar,  overthrew  the  republic. 
Kossuth  resigned,  and  Gorgei  was  made  dictator;  but 
within  two  days  Gorgei  surrendered  his  whole  army  with 
its  cannon  and  stores  to  the  Russians.  Kossuth  and  a 
few  companions  escaped  into  Turkey,  where  they  were 
kindly  received  by  the  Sultan,  the  hereditary  foe  of  the 
Czar;  a  few  years  later  he  visited  America,  where  his 
eloquent  speeches  awakened  great  sympathy  for  his  op- 
pressed countrymen. 

733.  The  Italian  insurgents  were  scarcely  more  successful 


JOSEPH  GARIBALDI,  401 

in  their  stroke  for  liberty;  but  one  important  step  was 
gained  in  the  acknowledged  leadership  of  the  House  of 
Savoy,  which,  ten  years  later,  secured  the  unity  and  inde- 
pendence of  Italy.  Pope  Pius  IX.  had  begun  his  reign  in 
1846  with  liberal  measures,  which  excited  great  hopes;  but 
when  the  people  demanded  war  against  Austria  in  aid  of 
the  Lombard  insurgents,  he  refused.  His  minister.  Count 
Rossi,  was  murdered,  and  the  pope's  palace  was  assaulted, 
but  he  himself  escaped  to  Gaeta. 

734.  Among  the  noted  actors  in  the  Italian  revolution 
was  Joseph  Garibaldi,  a  defender  of  freedom,  and  a  foe 
to  despotism  in  every  form.  Garibaldi  entered  Rome  with 
a   band    of   volunteers;    and    an   Assembly  was 

called,  which  deposed  the  pope  and  proclaimed  *=  ■  '  ^9- 
a  republic  with  Mazzini  at  its  head.  The  French  president 
sent  an  army  to  the  aid  of  Pope  Pius;  it  was  defeated  by 
Garibaldi  before  the  walls  of  Rome;  but  after  more  troops 
arrived  from  France,  the  city  was  taken  and  the  republic 
was  overthrown,  July  3,  1849. 

735.  In  Germany  a  national  parliament  proposed  to  re- 
vive the  Empire  and  to  place  the  king  of  Prussia  at  its 
head.  But  Frederic  William  IV.  refused  the  crown,  and 
for  some  years  the  multitude  of  German  states  were  less 
united  than  ever.  Most  of  the  petty  sovereigns  gave  free 
constitutions  to  their  people;  /.  c.^  they  conceded  freedom 
of  speech  and  of  the  press,  and  shared  the  law-making 
power  with  representatives  chosen  by  ballot. 

Point  out  the  dominions  of  the  Hapsburgs  in  Hungary,  Germany, 
and  Italy.     Of  the  Bourbons  in  Spain  and  Italy.     See  §740. 

Note. — The  kingdom  of  Naples  had  been  conferred  upon  Charles 
VI.  of  Austria,  by  the  treaty  of  Rastadt,  in  1714  (see  ^630),  but  in 
1734  it  was  conquered  by  the  Spanish  Bourbons,  and  reunited  with 
Sicily  under  a  younger  branch  of  that  family.     §634. 

Read  Dyer's  Modern  F.urope;  "Memoirs"  of  Guizot  and  De 
Tocqueville. 

Hist —26. 


402  MODERN  HISTORY. 


NOTES. 

1.  This  was  Alexander  I.,  son  of  Paul  I.  of  Russia,  and  grandson  of 
Catherine  the  Great  (§  008  and  note).  Born  at  St.  Petersburg,  in  1777,  he 
was  educated  under  the  special  care  of  his  grandmother,  who  herself  wrote 
stories  for  his  amusement  and  instruction,  and  designed  tliat  he  should 
be  her  immediate  successor,  to  the  exclusion  of  his  father.  Paul,  how- 
ever, destroyed  the  will,  and  reigned  five  years  after  his  mother's  death, 
before  his  foolish  and  tyrannical  conduct  provoked  the  conspiracy  whicli 
ended  his  life.  Alexander  came  to  the  throne  at  tlie  age  of  34,  a  far 
nobler  and  better  sovereign  than  any  of  liis  predecessors.  The  invasion 
of  his  dominions  in  1812  (?^708),  roused  all  the  energy  of  his  nature,  and 
from  that  time  until  his  death  he  held  a  foremost  place  in  European 
politics.  Since  the  Peace  of  Tilsit  (^  703)  lie  had  been  a  friend  of  Na- 
poleon; henceforth  he  was  a  powerful  but  generous  enemy.  In  1814,  he 
protected  Paris  from  the  rage  of  his  own  soldiers,  and  obtained  for  Na- 
poleon the  most  favorable  terms  tliat  the  allies  would  grant.  He  liber- 
ated 150,000  French  prisoners  of  war  who  had  been  detained  in  Russia, 
and  freely  forgave  all  his  own  subjects  who  had  taken  part  against  him. 
He  labored  with  great  diligence  for  the  reform  of  abuses  in  every  part 
of  his  government,  both  military  and  civil.  But  with  all  the  czar's 
humane  intentions,  he  dared  not  trust  his  people  with  the  smallest 
degree  of  freedom;  his  idea  of  his  own  duty  involved  the  exercise  of 
absolute  control,  like  that  of  a  wise  and  powerful  parent  over  very 
young  and  ignorant  children.  In  his  later  years,  his  morbid  hatred 
of  revolutions  grew  upon  him,  and  he  devoted  most  of  his  energy  to 
the  repression  of  liberal  movements,  not  only  in  his  own  dominions, 
but  in  Italy,  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Germany.  He  died,  December,  1825, 
and,  having  no  son,  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Nicholas.  g662  and 
note  8. 

2.  Silvio  Pellico,  an  Italian  poet,  has  given  in  his  beautiful  narra- 
tive, "My  Prisons,"  a  true  account  of  the  suflTerings  inflicted  in  Austrian 
dungeons.  For  no  other  crime  than  membership  in  a  secret  society,  he 
was  immured  for  eight  years  in  the  fortress  of  Spielberg,  Moravia.  He 
was  a  man  of  refined  culture,  a  friend  of  Lords  Brougham  and  Byron 
and  of  Mme.  de  Stael. 

3.  Kotzobue  was  a  German  dramatist  of  some  merit,  born  in  Wei- 
mar, 1761.  At  the  age  of  20  he  entered  the  Russian  service,  and  was 
made  governor  of  Esthonia,  and,  some  years  later,  in  1817,  was  charged 
by  Alexander  I.  with  the  task  of  watching  and  reporting  to  him  the 
movements  of  the  popular  mind  in  Germany.  Kotzebue  had  already 
made  himself  odious  to  many  Germans  by  his  openly  expressed  con- 
tempt for  liberal  opinions,  and  Karl  Ludwig  Sand  put  him  to  death  as 
a  "traitor  to  liberty." 

4.  Alexander  Ypsilanti,  one  of  a  family  of  patriotic  statesmen,  was 
born  at  Constantinople,  1792.  He  fought  with  distinction  in  the  Russian 
armies,  and,  at  the  age  of  25,  attained  the  rank  of  major-general.  In 
1820  he  was  made  president  of  the  Hetaeria,  a  secret  society  formed  for 
the  promotion  of  Greek  independence.  He  was  imprisoned  six  years 
in  an  Austrian  dungeon,  and,  though  released  at  the  intercession  of  the 
Czar  Nicholas,  whose  father  he  had  so  ably  served,  he  died  a  year  after 
his  release,  in  1828.  His  brother  Dimitri  commanded  the  army  of  free- 
dom in  Eastern  Greece,  1828-1832. 

5.  Marco  Bozzaris  was  born  at  Suli,  in  Albania,  about  1790,  served 
in  the  army  of  Napoleon,  1808-1815,  but  threw  himself  with  zeal  into  the 
Greek  Revolution  as  soon  as  it  broke  out,  in  1820.  He  became  general 
of  the  forces  of  Western  Greece  in  1822,  and  fell  the  next  year  in  his  as- 
sault upon  a  Turkish  camp.  This  event  has  been  immortalized  by  our 
American  poet,  Fitz  Greene  Halleck. 

6  Otho  was  a  son  of  King  Ludwig  I.  of  Bavaria.  He  was  born  1815, 
and  chosen  in  1832  to  be  king  of  the  Greeks.  In  many  respects  his  reign 
proved  uncongenial  to  his  people.  The  allies  had  meant  to  make  him 
an  arbitrary  sovereign,  but,  in  1843,  the  people  demanded  a  representa- 


NOTES.  403 


tlve  luwwmbly,  and  tho  king  was  oompelled  to  yield.  In  1882  he  resigned 
his  crown,  ami  tho  next  year  Prlnre  (Joorno  of  Deniniirk,  brother  of 
the  PrliuH'ss  of  Walos,  l>ecainc  king  of  tho  IlellencH, 

7.  This  was  Ixnils  PliIllpiK?,  eldest  son  of  Philippe  EgalitC'  (g()83),  whow 
cruel  (losortlon  of  his  cousin's  cause  did  not  siive  his  own  head  from 
the  Kuillotino. 

Tho  y<»unKor  prince  was  a  l)etter  man  tlian  his  father.  He  had  Im- 
hiboil  liberal  nrinciph's  in  bis  chilciliood  wliilo  a<-(iuirinK  habits  of  pru- 
dence and  self-control  under  llio  teachings  of  his  governess,  Mme.  tie 
(tonlls,  and  he  favore<l  the  popular  cause  In  the  French  Revolution. 
He  had  need  for  all  that  he  had  learne<l  duriuK  the  strange  adventures 
of  bis  exile,  for  as  a  prince  lie  could  hardly  escape  the  suspicions  of 
the  succosnIvo  revolutionary  governments,  thougn  he  hml  served  lii 
their  armies  against  tho  Austrians.  At  one  time  ne  was  a  professor  in 
a  (iernuxn  college  under  an  assumed  name;  at  another,  teaching  Frcncli 
In  the  United  states;  and  afterwards,  for  eight  years,  a  resident  in  En- 
gland. When  I^iuls  XVIII.  came  to  the  throne  In  1«14,  the  duke  of 
Orleans  returned  to  France,  and  received  all  the  honors  and  estates 
that  were  his  by  inheritance.  He  afToctod  popular  manners,  and  even 
displeased  the  king  (Charles  X.),  by  sending  his  sons  to  tlie  public 
schools  and  colleges,  but  he  kept  aloof  from  public  affairs  until  the 
revolution  of  18;i0  called  him  to  the  throne. 

Though  peaceful  as  far  as  Europe  was  concerned,  the  reign  of  Ix)Uls 
Philippe  was  marked  by  the  beginning  of  French  conquests  in  Africa. 
Algeria  became  a  military  colony  of  France;  and  it  was  not  till  1871 
that  a  civil  government  was  established  in  the  settled  districts.  After 
the  king's  abtlication,  he  retired  to  England,  where  he  died  at  his  estate 
of  Clareraont,  18;j0. 


8.  Helena  Louise  Elisabeth,  Duchess  of  Orleans,  was  a  German 
princess  of  beautiful  and  noble  cliaracter— a  daughter  of  the  Grand  Duke 
of  Mecklenburg  Schwerin.  She  retired  to  England  with  the  rest  of  the 
royal  family  and  died  at  Richmond  in  1H58. 

9.  General  Louis  Eugene  de  Cavaignac  had  proved  and  developed 
his  militiiry  talent.s  in  Algeria,  where  he  served,  1832-1848,  when,  in  the 
year  of  revolutions,  he  was  called  home  to  defend  the  government 
against  the  Parisian  mob.  The  Assembly  invested  him  with  ai)solute 
power,  but  as  soon  as  order  was  restored  he  resigned  his  dictatorship, 
only  to  be  called  immediately  to  the  position  of  President  of  the  Re- 
public under  the  provisional  government.  This  place  he  held  six 
months,  until  a  general  election  had  decided  in  favor  of  Itonanarte  for 
permanent  president.  He  then  took  his  seat  In  the  Assembly  as  a 
moderate  Republican.  After  the  empire  wa-s  declared,  he  refused  to 
take  the  oath  of  allegiance,  and  retired  to  private  life,  leaving  an  un- 
sullied record. 

10.  Louis  Napoleon  Bonaparte  was  a  son  of  Louis,  king  of  Holland 
(g§7(Ki.  707),  brother  of  the  Emperor  Napoleon  I.,  and  of  Hortense,  daugh- 
ter of  the  Empress  Josephine.  Bom  at  the  palace  of  the  Tuileries,  1808. 
he,  at  seven  years  of  age,  became  an  exile  with  his  mother,  upon  the 
fall  of  the  empire.  On  the  death,  in  1832,  of  his  cousin,  the  king  of 
Rome  (^706),  he  liecame  the  representative  of  the  Bonapartist  claims; 
and,  in  18;i6,  made  a  foolish  and  unsuccessful  attempt,  with  a  few  follow- 
ers, at  a  capture  of  Strasburg.  Being  arrested,  he  was  soon  set  at  lib- 
erty and  took  refuge  in  the  LTnited  States.  Four  years  later,  he  made 
an  equally  vain  attack  upon  Boulogne,  and  this  time  was  sentenced 
to  perpetual  imprisonment  in  the  fortress  of  Ham.  After  six  years  he 
made  his  escape,  and  lived  for  two  years  in  London.  The  revolution  of 
1848  opened  a  way  for  his  return  to  France,  where  he  was  elected  in 
June  to  be  a  member  of  the  National  Assemblj',  and,  in  the  following 
December,  to  be  President  of  the  Republic  for  four  years. 

The  remaining  events  of  his  life  belong  to  general  history.  His  lit- 
erary tastes  were  exercise<l,  before  his  accession  to  power,  chiefly  in 
writings  on  political  and  millt^iry  subjects,  his  most  noted  work  l>eing 
"Naixjleonic  Ideas,"  published  in  18;i$».  After  he  became  emperor,  he 
commenced,  but  never  finished,  a  "Life  of  Cwsar,"  in  which  he  is  sup- 
posed to  have  designed  a  double  parallel  between  bis  imperial  uncle 
and  the  great  Julius;  and  between  himself  and  Augustus  (see  gg  238, 239). 


CHAPTER    XV. 


THE    SECOND    FRENCH    EMPIRE. 


A  Prussian  Soldier. 


HE  PYench  Republic,  like  that  of 
half  a  century  before,  was  soon 
exchanged  for  an  imperial  govern- 
ment. Having  first  placed  at  the 
head  of  the  army  men  who  were 
committed  to  his  plans,  President 
Bonaparte  caused  the  principal 
generals  and  statesmen  of  France 
to  be  suddenly  seized  and  impris- 
oned during  the  night  following 
December  i,  1851.  An  army  w^as 
already  massed  in  Paris,  the  news- 
paper offices  were  occupied  by 
soldiers,  and  the  morning  editions 
suppressed,  while  the  government 
printers  were  setting  up  placards 
which  appeared  before  daylight  on 
all  the  walls. 


737.  These  declared  the  capital  in  a  state  of  siege,  the 
National  Assembly  dissolved,  and  called  for  a  new  election 
by  universal  suffrage.  The  telegraph  told  the  remotest 
corners  of  France  that  the  revolution  was  already  accom- 
plished, and  that  Bonaparte  was  responsible  head  of  the 
government  for  ten  years.  The  deputies,  protesting,  were 
carted  away  to  prison;  and  the  Supreme  Court  was  broken 
up  by  an  armed  force.  The  coup  d^etat  seemed  to  have 
succeeded  without  bloodshed,  for  the  prosperous  classes 
(404) 


UNJJ'm^A.joA    of  ITALY.  405 

liked  any  thing  better  than  anarchy,  or  the  reign  of  the 
mob;  and  all  who  remembered  the  First  Empire  felt  sure 
of  a  strong  and  efficient  government  under  a  Bonaparte. 

738.  But,  on  December  4,  the  army  in  the  streets  began 
to  fire,  ai)parently  without  orders,  upon  a  throng  of  peace- 
able citizens;  multitudes  more  were  massacred  in  prison, 
and  26,500  were  transported  to  Cayenne  and  the  African 
coast.  Whatever  resistance  there  might  have  been,  was 
now  crushed:  the  people  conferred  the  whole  executive 
power  on  Louis  Napoleon  Bonaparte  for  ten  years;  and 
the  next  autumn,  by  a  similar  vote,  he  became  **  Napoleon 
111,*  by  the  grace  of  God  and  the  will  of  the  i>eople. 
Emperor  of  the  French." 

739.  The  war  in  the  Crimea,  in  which  France  and 
England  were  the  allies  of  the  Turks  against  Russia,  has 
been  described  (§§662-665).  It  was  brought  about 
mainly  by  Napoleon,  who  wished  to  please  his  army  and 
nation  by  a  taste  of  military  glory,  such  as  they  associ- 
ated with  his  uncle's  name.  The  war  was  ended  by  the 
treaty  of  Paris,  1856;  and,  soon  afterward,  France  became 
the  ally  of  Victor  Emanuel,*  king  of  Sardinia,  in  a  war 
against  Austria. 

740.  Brave  men  from  all  the  states  of  Italy  sought  the 
camp  of  Victor  Emanuel,  and  the  contest  which  followed 
is  called  the  War  of  Italian  Nationality.  The  Austrian 
rulers  of  Tuscany,  Modena,  and  Parma  fled  from  their  mis- 
governed dominions,  and  their  armies  joined  the  allies,  who 
gained  decisive  victories  at  Montebello,  Palestro, 

and  Magenta.     To  the  latter.  General  McMahon  ■  ^  ^9- 

contributed  by  coming  up  with  reserves  at  the  right  moment, 
and  he  was  rewarded  with  the  rank  of  Marshal  of  France 
and  Duke  of  Magenta.^ 


♦His  cousin,   the    King  of   Rome  (2  706),  had  died  near  Vienna, 
in  1852. 


4o6  MODERN  HISTORY. 

741.  A  few  days  later  Napoleon  and  Victor  Emanuel 
entered  Milan  in  triumph.  The  last  great  battle  of  the  war 
was  fought  at  Solferino,  June  24;  and,  by  the  treaty  of  Villa- 
franca,  Francis  Joseph  surrendered  all  his  claims  to  Lom- 
bardy  and  the  protection  of  the  three  duchies.  The  next 
year  Sicily  was  conquered  by  Garibaldi  and  his  volunteers, 
and  the  Bourbon  king,  Francis  11. ,  fled  from  Naples.  The 
Two  Sicilies  united  of  their  own  accord  with  the  Kingdom 
of  Italy,  which  now  embraced  the  whole  peninsula  excepting 
the  territories  of  Rome  and  Venice.  French  troops  still  de- 
cupled Rome  and  protected  the  sovereignty  of  the  pope. 

742.  Napoleon  III.  was  now  at  the  height  of  his  power, 
and  his  history  is  inseparable  from  that  of  all  Europe.  In 
1 86 1  he  even  interfered  in  American  affairs,  by  assuming 
a  protectorate  of  the  ''Latin  Race"  on  that  continent. 
Mexico  was  in  a  state  of  revolution,  and  a  French  army, 
occupying  its  capital,  secured  a  vote  for  an  hereditary  em- 
pire in  place  of  the  republic.  The  archduke  Maximilian,^ 
brother  of  Francis  Joseph,  was  chosen  emperor  under 
French  influence;  and  entered  the  City  of  Mexico  with  the 
Empress  Carlotta  in  June,  1864.  President  Juarez  removed 
the  seat  of  his  government  to  Monterey,  and  war  between 
the  empire  and  the  republic  went  on  for  three  years  with 
varying  fortunes.  In  1867,  the  French  troops  having  been 
withdrawn,  Maximilian  was  taken  prisoner  and  was  shot  at 
Queretaro.     The  republic  was  reestablished. 

743.  Napoleon  had  now  met  a.  powerful  opponent  to  his 
management  of  European  affairs.  This  was  Count  von 
Bismarck,'*  the  Prussian  chancellor,  who  had  resolved  to  see 
his  sovereign  at  the  head  of  united  Germany.  Austria  and 
Prussia  had  lately  engaged  together  in  the  Schleswig-Holstein 
war,  which  ended  in  the  separation  of  those  duchies  from 
Denmark;  but,  in  the  division  of  the  spoils,  a  new  war 
arose  —  a  short  but  very  decisive  contest,  which  revolution- 
ized Germany. 


THE  SEVEN  WEEKS'   WAR.  407 

744.  The  Prussian  armies  had  been  thoroughly  reor- 
ganized; the  infantry  had  the  needle-gun,  which,  for  swift- 
ness and  accuracy  in  firing,  had  never  been  surpassed.  The 
king  of  Italy  made  a  close  alliance  with  Prussia,  and  attacked 
the  Austrians  at  Custozza  with  less  good  fortune 

-  .        ,  „„  .  .  -        A.  D.  1866. 

than  his  northern  friends.     The  main  action  of 
the  ''Seven  Weeks'  War"  was  the  battle  of  Sadowa,  where 
the  needle-gun   won   the  day  for  the   Prussians,  while   the 
white-coated  Austrian  cavalry, — hitherto  considered  the  best 
and  bravest  in  Eurojje, — was  put  to  flight  by  the  Uhlans. 

745-  ^>y  ^^^^  treaty  of  Prague,  Austria  withdrew  at  once 
from  Germany  and  Italy,  ceding  Venetia  to  Victor  f^man- 
uel,  and  recognizing  Prussia  as  the  head  of  the  North 
German  Confederation,  which  succeeded  to  the  arrangement 
of  1815  (§716).  Thus  shorn  of  his  German  and  Italian 
dominions,  Francis  Joseph  took  the  wise  course  of  reforming 
his  own  hereditary  states.  A  representative  parliament  was 
convened  at  Vienna,  which  in  a  single  session  swept  away 
abuses  of  a  thousand  years,  making  all  classes,  religions,  and 
races  equal  before  the  laws.  The  "Austro-Hungarian  Mon- 
archy" is  now  as  liberal  as  any  in  Europe. 

746.  The  swift  and  surprising  changes  made  by  the 
Seven  Weeks'  War"  were  little  relished  by  Napoleon  III., 
who  had  thought  that  his  aid  would  be  needed  by  Prussia. 
Several  litde  diplomatic  moves, — made  in  order  to  regain 
his  lost  importance, — were  quiedy  checkmated  by  Bismarck, 
but  at  length  a  revolution  in  Spain  afforded  the  desired 
cause  of  war. 

747.  Isabella  II.  had  been  compelled  to  quit  her  kingdom 
and  take  refuge  in  France,  while  the  reign  of  the  Spanish 
Bourbons  was  declared  to  be  ended.  Many  candidates 
sought  the  vacant  throne, — among  them  a  new  Don  Carlos, 
grandson  of  the  queen's  uncle  (g  727).  But  Carlos  was  the 
rei)resentative  of  absolutism  and  priestcraft,  and  the  Span- 
iards had  no  mind  to  crown  another  Philip  II.    They  invited 


4o8  MODERN  HISTORY. 

Prince  Leopold  of  Hohenzollern,  a  very  distant  relative  of 
the  king  of  Prussia,  to  be  their  sovereign.  Napoleon  chose 
to  consider  this  as  a  Prussian  aggression,  though  King 
William  I.  declared  that  he  had  nothing  to  do  with  the 
matter,  and  could  not  prevent  Leopold's  taking  the  crown 
if  he  chose  it.  Leopold  himself  refused  to  be  a  candidate, 
as  soon  as  he  heard  of  the  excitement  at  Paris. 

748.  All  was  in  vain.  The  French  armies  began  their 
march  to  the  Rhine  on  the  day  of  Leopold's  resignation. 
On  July  19th,  Napoleon  declared  war  against  Prussia,  and, 
leaving  the  Empress  Eugenie  as  regent  during  his  absence, 
went  to  the  frontier  with  his  son.  It  was  soon  found  that 
the  French  army  was  unfit  for  service.  No  regiment  was 
full,  and  no  supplies  of  food  were  provided.  Thousands  of 
men  went  starving  into  battle,  and  it  is  no  wonder  that  the 
gallant  army  which  left  Paris  so  gayly  for  the  ' '  march  to 
Berlin"  found  itself  unable  even  to  defend  France. 

749.  The  Prussians  were  drilled,  fed  and  equipped  to  the 
highest  degree  of  efficiency,  and,  when  joined  by  the  South- 
German  forces,  had  more  than  twice  the  numbers  of  the 
French.  Napoleon  gained  a  slight  advantage  at  Saar- 
brlicken,  but  it  was  almost  the  last  of  the  French  victories. 
Three  German  armies  crossed  the  frontier  into  France.  The 
Crown  Prince  threatened  Paris;  while  his  cousin  Frederic 
Charles  three  times  severely  defeated  Bazaine,  who  was  now 
at  the  head  of  the  main  French  army,  and  finally  shut  him 
up  in  Metz  with  his  whole  command. 

750.  McMahon  was  meanwhile  mustering  a  new  force 
for  the  relief  of  Bazaine;  but  the  Crown  Prince  contrived 
to  crowd  him  back  upon  Sedan,  where,  after  a  tremendous 
battle,  the  fortress  itself  and  the  whole  French  army,  includ- 
ing cannon,  horses  and  108,000  men,  were  surrendered  to 
the  Germans.  The  French  emperor,  who  was  with  Mc- 
Mahon, surrendered  himself,  September  2d,  1870,  and 
remained   for  a  time   a  prisoner  at  Wilhelmshohe,  an  old 


THE   SIEGE  OF  PARIS.  409 

palace  of  his  uncle,  King  Jerome.     He  died  at  Chiselhurst, 
in  England,  the  9th  of  January,  1873. 

751.  Paris  was  filled  with  terror;  the  Crown  Prince  and 
his  victorious  army  were  daily  expected  at  her  gates.  The 
Legislative  Assembly  declared  that  the  empire  had  ceased 
to  exist.  The  Empress-Regent  and  her  son  took  refuge  in 
England,  and  a  provisional  republic  was  proclaimed  with 
General  Trochu  at  its  head.  A  large  party  in  France  now 
desired  peace.  The  king  of  Prussia  had  constantly  declared 
that  he  had  no  quarrel  with  the  French  people,  but  only 
with  their  emperor  who  had  insulted  him;  but  he  now  de- 
manded Alsace  and  Lorraine  (§617),  while  the  republic, 
though  willing  to  pay  a  large  amount  of  money,  refused  to 
cede  an  "inch  of  its  land  or  a  stone  of  its  fortresses."  For 
this  cause  the  war  went  on. 

752.  On  September  18,  the  Crown  Prince  took  up  his 
quarters  at  Versailles  and  his  armies  besieged  Paris.  Gam- 
betta,  escaping  in  a  balloon,  joined  some  other  members  of 
the  provisional  government  at  Tours,  which  was  for  a  time 
the  French  capital.  Strasburg  was  taken  by  the  Germans, 
September  28,  after  a  fierce  cannonade ;  and  a  month  later 
Bazaine  surrendered  the  stronghold  of  Metz,  with  his  army 
of  180,000  men  and  officers  and  an  immense  number  of 
cannon. 

753.  Germany  gained  its  long-desired  unity,  while  France 
was  on  the  verge  of  ruin.  All  the  German  states  joined  in 
requesting  the  king  of  Prussia  to  assume  the  imperial  crown. 
This  time  (§735)  the  offer  was  accepted,  and  the  Emperor 
William  I.  was  crowned  in  the  great  hall  at 
Versailles.  Paris  at  last  was  starved  into  sub- 
mission. On  the  28th  of  January,  187 1,  the  sixteen  forts 
which  formed  her  outer  circle  of  defense  were  surrendered. 
Three  weeks'  truce  was  allowed  so  that  the  French  people 
might  vote  for  a  new  government.  A  republic  was  pro- 
claimed, and  Thiers*  was  chosen  as  its  president.     The  gov- 


41  o  MODERN  HISTORY. 

ernment  made  peace  with  Germany,  ceding  Alsace  and 
Lorraine  and  engaging  to  pay  one  thousand  miUions  of 
dollars  as  war  indemnity  to  the  conqueror. 

754.  A  still  greater  calamity  now  befell  Paris.  That 
fierce,  ignorant  and  lawless  rabble,  which  had  made  the 
worst  element  in  all  previous  revolutions,  gained  control  of 
the  city,  while  the  rightful  government  was  forced  to  retire 
to  Versailles.  Many  battles  were  fought  for  the  forts  south 
of  Paris.  Strong  parties  in  other  great  cities  sympathized 
with  the  Commune,  for  it  was  suspected  that  Thiers'  govern- 
ment favored  a  restoration  of  monarchy,  while  the  towns 
were  uniformly  republican. 

755.  Victory  at  last  remained  with  the  Versailles  forces; 
and  the  Communists,  becoming  desperate,  fired  Paris  with 
trains  of  petroleum,  destroying  the  Tuileries,  the  Hotel  de 
Ville  and  other  splendid  buildings.  •  The  archbishop  of  Paris 
and  many  others  were  wantonly  murdered,  and  the  desola- 
tion wrought  by  the  Commune  far  exceeded  that  of  the 
German  siege. 

756.  The  French  troops  having  meanwhile  been  with- 
drawn from  Rome,  that  city  was  occupied  by  Victor  Eman- 
uel, and  the  people  of  the  States  of  the  Church  signified, 

by  an  almost  unanimous  vote,  their  desire  to  be 
^'■'  ^  ^°'  united  with  the  Kingdom  of  Italy.  Pope  Pius 
IX.^was  recognized  in  all  his  dignities  as  head  of  the 
Roman  Church;  and  princely  revenues  were  secured  to 
him,  with  undisturbed  possession  of  the  Leonine  City 
(§305);   but  his  temporal  sovereignty  ceased  to  exist. 

The  first  months  of  1878  were  marked  by  the  death  of 
the  two  chief  actors  in  recent  Italian  affairs.  King  Victor 
Emanuel  died,  January  9,  in  the  Quirinal  Palace  at  Rome; 
and  Pope  Pius  IX.,  February  7,  in  the  Vatican.  Humbert  I. 
succeeded  his  father  as  king  of  united  Italy,  and  Cardinal 
Pecci  became  Pope  Leo  XIII.  Under  several  able  minis- 
ters, Italy  has  gained  importance  among   European   states. 


THE  RUSSO'TURKISH  WAR.  411 

757.  In  1873,  Thiers  having  resigned,  Marshal  McMahon 
was  chosen  to  be  president,  for  seven  years,  of  the  French 
republic.  The  war  debt  was  promptly  paid  by  a  popular 
loan,  and  in  spite  of  this  enormous  tax  upon  the  industry 
of  the  people,  the  national  finances  were  restored  to  a 
healthy  and  prosperous  condition.  A  year  before  the  ex- 
piration of  the  "Septennat"  McMahon  resigned  his  office, 
and  M.  Grevy,  President  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  was 
chosen  to  succeed  him.  Ciambetta, — always  a  leading 
spirit  in  the  republic,  through  his  great  abilities  and  his 
liberal  policy, — became  President  of  the  Deputies,  and  in 
November,  1881,  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  Cabinet. 
The  seat  of  government  was  removed  from  Versailles  to 
Paris  in  June,  1879. 

The  same  month,  Prince  Louis  Napoleon,  son  of  the  late 
Emperor  (§750),  was  killed  in  a  fight  with  the  Zulus  in 
southern  Africa.  He  had  named  his  cousin.  Prince  Victor, 
to  succeed  him  at  the  head  of  the  Bonapartists,  who  still 
hope  to  regain  the  ascendancy  in  France. 

758.  Spain,  after  a  short-livecj  republic,  and  a  two  years' 
attempt  at  constitutional  monarchy  under  Amadeo,  son  of 
the  king  of  Italy,  restored  her  Bourbon  line  in  the  person 
of  Alfonso  XII.,  son  of  the  ex-queen  Isabella.  Alfonso 
guaranteed  freedom  of  worship  and  some  provision  for  pop- 
ular instruction,  and  invited  the  Jews,  after  their  exile  of 
centuries  (p.  191),  to  return  to  Spain.  Under  this  en- 
lightened policy,  it  may  be  hoped  that  the  great  peninsula, 
so  richly  endowed  by  nature,  will  in  time  recover  from  the 
effects  of  ages  of  misrule. 

759.  It  is  long  since  the  Turks,  as  conquerors  (§§560, 
563),  threatened  the  peace  of  Europe ;  but  the  vast  interests 
of  England  and  Russia,  in  the  East,  render  them  jealous 
of  any  changes  in  the  Turkish  territories.  Meanwhile  the 
Christian  subjects  of  the  Sultan  have  had  to  suffer  intoler- 
able  oppressions.      In   June,    1875,    ^^^^   li^^tle   province   of 


412 


MODERN  msTOR  K 


Herzegovina  revolted,  with  the  hearty  sympathy  of  her 
neighbors.  The  next  May  the  French  and  German  consuls 
at  Salonica  were  murdered  by  a  Turkish  mob.  Russia, 
Austria,  and  Germany  then  united  in  what  is  called  the 
''Berlin  Memorandum,"  requiring  Turkey  to  reform  her 
government,  and  give  security  of  life  and  property  to 
Mussulmans  and  Christians  alike.  England  refused  to  join 
in  the  demand;  and  within  a  month  Bulgaria  was  the 
scene  of  horrid  brutalities  by  the  Turks.  All  Europe  was 
inflamed  with  indignation;  Servia  and  Montenegro  declared 
war,  with  secret  aid  from  Russia;  the  Sultan,  Abd-el-Aziz, 
was  deposed,  and  probably  murdered  by  his  ministers;  and 
in  December,  1876,  a  conference  of  six  great  powers  met 
at  Constantinople.  The  Turkish  government  refusing  to 
accede  to  their  demands,  the  Czar  declared  war,  and 
marched  his  armies  to  the  Danube  and  into  Armenia. 

760.  Fierce  fighting  went  on  for  a  year  in  the  Balkan 
passes  and  the  mountains  south  of  the  Black  Sea.  The  de- 
cisive events  were  the  surrender  of  Kars,  in  Armenia,  with 
Nov.  18, 1877.  300  cannons  and  10,000  prisoners,  and  of 
Dec.  10.  Plevna,  in  the  Balkan  region,  with  30,000  men. 

The  Trojan  and  Shipka  Passes  were  immediately  seized  by 
the  Russians,  and  both  parties  were  now  ready  to  treat  for 
peace.  By  the  treaty  of  San  Stefano,  May  3,  1878,  Russia 
was  confirmed  in  the  possession  of  her  recent  conquests  in 
Asia,  including  the  port  of  Batoum  on  the  Black  Sea. 
England  protested  against  this  easy  settlement  of  affairs,  and 
by  a  special  agreement  with  the  Sultan,  June  4,  engaged  to 
protect  Asiatic  Turkey  against  future  invasion,  on  the  con- 
dition of  pledges  of  reform  in  the  government  of  that 
region,  and  the  assignment  to  her  of  the  island  of  Cyprus. 

This  protectorate  would  of  itself  prove  the  decay  of  the 
Ottoman  power,  but  additional  evidence  is  found  in  the 
rapid  decline  of  population,  which  has  turned  large  tracts  of 
once  fruitful  land  into  wildernesses. 


THE  RUSSO-TURKISff  WAR.  413 

761.  On  the  13th  of  June,  1878,  a  Congress  of  European 
Powers*  assembled  at  Berlin,  under  the  presidency  of 
Prince  Bismarck,  and  devoted  a  month  to  the  discussion  of 
questions  growing  out  of  the  recent  war.  Bulgaria  was  se- 
cured in  a  Christian  government  of  her  own,  her  reigning 
prince  being  chosen  by  the  people,  l)ut  < onfirmed  by  the 
Sultan  with  the  consent  of  all  tlic  '  Powers."  Eastern 
Roumelia  was  made  equally  free  as  to  internal  affairs,  but 
had  her  prince  appointed  by  the  Sultan.  Bosnia  and  Her- 
zegovina were  added  to  Austria.  Roumania,  Servia  and 
Montenegro  became  wholly  independent. 

762.  A  ** Supplementary  Conference"  was  held  at  Berlin 
in  June,  1880,  to  insist  upon  the  needed  reforms  in  Turkey, 
and  to  settle  the  boundaries  of  Greece  and  Montenegro.  A 
league  of  Albanian  mountaineers  were  resisting  the  transfer 
of  territory  to  the  latter  which  the  Turks  were  ready  to 
make;  but  upon  the  appearance  of  combined  fleets  of  six 
Great  Powers  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  their  proposal  to 
seize  the  wealthy  port  of  Smyrna  as  security  for  the  execu- 
tion of  the  treaty,  the  Sultan  found  strength  to  fulfill  his 
promises,  and  late  in  November  Dulcigno  and  its  dependent 
territories  were  surrendered  to  Montenegro. 

763.  Russia,  meanwhile,  though  victorious  abroad,  was 
threatened  by  enemies  at  home.  Alexander  II.,  by  eman- 
cipating twenty-two  millions  of  serfs  in  1861,  and  by  other 
liberal  measures,  had  studied  the  best  interests  of  his  people; 
but  the  change  from  despotism  to  constitutional  government 
could  not  be  made  in  a  day;  and  the  Nihilists,  a  party  op- 
posed to  all  restraints  of  law  or  religion,  were  secretly  ac- 
quiring great  influence.  They  made  repeated  attempts  upon 
the  life  of  the  Czar  and  some  of  his  chief  oflficers,  the  bold- 
est of  which  was  the  undermining  of  the  Winter  Palace  at 


*  These  were  Great  Britain,  France,  Germany,  Austria-Hungary, 
Italy,  Russia  and  Turkey. 


414  MODERN  HISTORY. 

St.  Petersburg,  in  February,  1880,  with  dynamite  and  gun 
cotton.  The  Czar  escaped,  but  ten  soldiers  were  killed. 
Count  Melikoff  was  then  placed  at  the  head  of  a  Supreme 
Executive  Commission,  with  absolute  power  to  maintain 
order  throughout  the  empire.  In  spite  of  his  rigorous 
measures  to  discover  and  defeat  the  plots  of  the  Nihilists, 
the  Czar  was  fatally  wounded  by  the  explosion  of  a  bomb, 
March  13,  1881,  and  died  in  a  few  hours.  His  son,  Alex- 
ander III  ,  became  "Emperor  of  all  the  Russias."  A  sim- 
ilar spirit  in  Germany  led  to  two  attacks  upon  the  venerable 
Emperor  William,  but  though  once  wounded  he  recovered, 
and  his  assassins  were  captured. 

764,  The  jealousies  of  England  and  Russia  as  to  their 
possessions  and  influence  in  Asia  caused  an  invasion  of 
Afghanistan  by  a  force  from  British  India  in  November, 
1878.  The  Governor-General,  in  his  proclamation,  charged 
the  Ameer,  Shere  Ali,  with  favoring  a  Russian  Embassy 
while  refusing  to  receive  one  from  Great  Britain.  He  dis- 
claimed any  intention  of  conquest,  and  promised  to  respect 
the  independence  of  the  Afghans,  but  declared  that  England 
would  never  permit  any  other  power  than  herself  to  inter- 
fere in  their  affairs.  The  frontier  fortresses  were  seized  by 
a  British  force,  and  the  Kuram  district  was  annexed  to 
British  India.  Shere  Ali  fled  into  Turkestan,  and  a  new 
Ameer  was  proclaimed  under  the  influence  of  the  invaders; 
but  two  days  later  they  were  severely  defeated  in  a  three 
hours'  fight  before  Candahar.  The  British  garrison  of  that 
place  was  relieved  by  General  Sir  Frederic  Roberts,  who 
after  a  long  march  defeated  the  Afghan  army  before  the 
place,  August  31,  1880;  but  the  war  resulted  in  enormous 
expense  and  little  credit  to  its  authors.  It  was,  in  fact, 
one  of  the  most  unpopular  measures  of  the  government 
of  Lord  Beaconsfield,  7  who  was  succeeded,  in  April,  1880, 
by  Mr.  Gladstone, »  long  the  head  of  the  Liberal  party  in 
England. 


TROUBLES  IN  IRELAND,  4 1 5 


765.  In  Ireland  scanty  harvests  in  1877  and  1878,  and  a 
total  failure  in  1879,  occasioned  famine  and  misery,  and  led 
to  an  open  revolt  against  the  land  laws.  A  Land  League 
was  formed  in  October,  1879,  having  for  its  object  an  im- 
mediate reduction  of  rents  and  an  ultimate  division  of  the 
land  among  those  who  cultivate  it.  The  present  English 
Premier,  Mr.  Gladstone,  has  always  favored  peasant  pro- 
prietorship so  far  as  it  can  be  secured  in  a  just  and  orderly 
manner,  but  the  unlawful  proceedings  of  the  ''Land 
Leaguers"  have  palled  for  repressive  measures.  Mr.  Par- 
nell,  president  of  the  League  and  member  of  Parliament, 
was  expelled  from  the  House  of  Commons,  January  24, 
1 88 1,  and  was  subsequently  imprisoned  in  Ireland.  Twenty- 
nine  other  Irish  members,  known  as  "Home  Rulers,"  were 
suspended  for  obstructing  the  business  of  the  House. 

The  starvation  in  the  western  counties  of  Ireland  called 
forth  the  generous  sympathy  of  friends  in  America.  Half  a 
million  of  dollars  were  promptly  sent  from  New  York,  and 
the  U.  S.  frigate  Constitution  was  dispatched  with  a  liberal 
supply  of  food.  The  Mayor  of  Dublin  and  the  Duchess 
of  Marlborough,  wife  of  the  Lord-Lieutenant,  also  raised 
a  relief  fund  from  English  charity ;  and  the  government,  by 
bringing  in  a  new  Land  Bill,  strove  to  apply  a  remedy  at 
the  root  of  the  distress.  The  rapid  progress  of  French 
power  in  Tunis^  and  the  armed  intervention  of  Great  Brit- 
ain in  Egyptian  affairs,  ^<^  are  among  the  notable  events  of 
1881  and  1882. 

Trace  on  Map  13,  the  campaign  of  Napoleon  III.  in  Italy.  Point 
out  Sadowa  (in  Bohemia),  Sedan,  Metz,  Strasburg.  Schleswig,  IIol- 
stein,  Alsace,  Lorraine.  Point  out  Salonica,  Constantinople,  Bosnia, 
Servia,   Roumania,  Roumelia ;  the  Balkan  Mountains,  Cyprus. 

Read  Kinglake's  "Invasion  of  the  Crimea;"  Lamartine's  *•  His- 
tory of  the  Revolution  of  1848  ; "  Blanchard  Jerrold's  *«  Life  of  Na- 
poleon III.;"  E.  Dicey'^  "  Victor  Emmanuel ;"  Count  Arrivabene's 
"Italy  under  Victor  Emmanuel;"  Hozier's  "  History  of  the  Seven 
Weeks'  War;"  Rustow's  "The  War  for  the  Rhine  Frontier;"  Broad- 
ley's  "The  Fourth  Punic  War,  or  Tunis  Past  and  Present." 


41 6  MODERN  HISTORY. 


NOTES. 

1.  Victor  Emmanuel  II.  of  Sardinia,  but  I.  of  all  Italy,  was  born  in 
1820,  at  Turin.  His  family— that  of  the  Dukes  of  Savoy— was  one  of  the 
oldest  reigning  houses  in  Europe;  but  his  kingdom  was  now  in  a  de- 
pressed condition,  owing  to  the  predominant  nower  of  Austria.  After 
a  crushing  defeat  at  Novara,  in  March,  1849,  Charles  Albert,  the  father 
of  Victor  Emmanuel,  abdicated  his  crown  in  favor  of  his  son,  and  soon 
afterward  died.  The  younger  king  was  fortunate  in  securing  the  serv- 
ices of  Count  Cavour,  one  of  the  greatest  of  Italian  statesmen,  who 
became  his  prime  minister  in  1852.  His  wise  and  liberal  policy  rallied 
about  the  House  of  Savoy  the  growing  enthusiasm  for  Italian  nationality, 
which  was  intensified  by  the  unendurable  despotism  of  the  Bourbons 
and  the  Hapsburgs  (^§718, 719).  In  1861,  Victor  Emmanuel  was  proclaimed 
king  of  Italy;  in  1866,  the  whole  province  of  Venetia  was  surrendered 
by  Austria,  and  in  September,  1870,  Rome  was  occupied  by  the  royal 
troops.  The  seat  of  governmeni,  which  had  been  removed,  in  1865,  from 
Turin  to  Florence,  was  now  fixed  at  the  ancient  capital  of  Italy.  See  g  756. 

2.  Marshal  McMahon  was  of  Irish  descent,  his  family  having  been 
settled  in  France  since  the  days  of  Louis  XIV.  and  James  II.  (3  553). 
After  20  years'  service  in  Algeria,  he  commanded  a  division  of  the 
French  forces  in  the  Crimean  War,  and  distinguished  himself  in  the 
siege  of  Sebastopol.    See  g§  750,  757. 

3.  Maximilian,  born  1832,  had  held  the  rank  of  admiral  and  com- 
mander-in-chief in  the  Austrian  navy  before  he  was  called  to  the  Mex- 
ican "throne.  He  married,  in  1858,  the  Princess  Carlotta,  daughter  of 
King  Leopold  1.  of  Belgium,  and,  in  domestic  life,  was  remarkable  for 
his  amiable  character.  He  was  deceived  as  to  the  popular  feeling  in 
Mexico;  and,  after  his  cause  was  hopeless,  refused  to  leave  the  country 
with  the  French  troops,  from  unwillingness  to  desert  those  who  had 
imperiled  their  lives  for  his  sake.  His  unhappy  wife  lost  her  reason, 
from  the  shock  of  his  untimely  fate. 

4.  Otto  Eduard  Leopold  von  Bismarck-Schbnhausen  was  born  at 
Brandenburg  in  1815;  studied  law  at  Gottingen  and  Berlin,  and  became 
a  member  of  the  Diet  in  1847.  After  filling  several  important  diplomatic 
stations,  he  became  Prussian  prime-minister  in  1862.  His  policy,  always 
steadily  pursued,  was  the  increase  of  Prussian  power  over  the  German 
states,  to  the,  exclusion  of  Austria.  This  came  to  complete  success  in 
1866,  as  a  result  of  the  Seven  Weeks'  War,  and  in  the  subsequent  estab- 
lishment of  the  German  empire  with  the  king  of  Prussia  at  its  head. 
In  July,  1867,  Bismarck  was  made  Chancellor  of  the  North  German 
Confederation,  and  he  has  held  the  same  office  in  the  empire. 

5.  Xjouis  Adolphe  Thiers  was  born  at  Marseilles  in  1797,  when  the 
Directory  was  still  ruling  France,  and  the  stirring  scenes  in  which  his 
youth  was  passed  intensified  not  only  his  love  of  his  native  land,  but 
his  eflbrts  to  comprehend  her  best  interests.  In  1821,  he  became  sub- 
editor of  a  liberal  journal  in  Paris,  and,  two  years  later,  published  the 
first  volume  of  his  "  History  of  the  French  Revolution."  In  1830,  he  used 
all  his  infiuence  to  place  Louis  Philippe  upon  the  throne,  and  became 
the  new  king's  first  Councilor  of  State.  He  desired  a  monarchy  like 
that  of  England,  in  which  the  ministry  should  be  responsible  to  the 
people  for  all  public  acts;  and  originated  the  popular  maxim,  "The 
king  reigns,  he  does  not  govern."  In  1840,  as  the  king  would  not  assent 
to  his  policy  towards  Mehemet  All  (see  note  10),  Thiers  resigned  his 
post,  and  was  succeeded  by  Guizot. 

He  voted  for  Louis  Napoleon  as  President,  but  censured  his  subse- 
quent acts,  and  firmly  opposed  the  war  with  Prussia  in  1870.  When  the 
empire  had  fallen,  he  threw  all  his  energy  into  the  service  of  the  Re- 
public, and,  though  now  an  old  man,  visited  several  European  courts 
to  present  the  claims  of  France  to  moral  support  and  sympathy.  He 
died  in  1877,  four  years  after  his  retirement  from  the  presidency. 

Besides  his  "History  of  the  Revolution,"  in  10  volumes,  M.  Thiers 
has  left  a  "History  of  the  Consulate  and  the  Empire,"  in  20  volumes; 
both  works  of  standard  authority. 


1 


ATOrES.  417 


6.  Giovanni  liaria  Mastal  Ferretti.  who,  in  1846,  became  Pope  Pius 
tlie  Ninth,  was  l)4)rn  In  1792,  of  ti  noble  Italian  family,  near  Ancona. 
In  1S2:{  ho  visited  Soutli  America  on  a  religious  lulssion,  and  is  said, 
then  and  afterwards,  to  have  spent  almost  Ids  entire  personal  income 
in  worlds  of  charity,  contenting  himself  with  the  most  IruKal  allowance. 

His  chosen  policy  wa.s  liberal;  he  reduced  the  expenses  of  the  papal 
court,  granted  amnesty  t«>  political  oflentlers,  and  Introduced  many 
needed  reforms.  lUit  the  exelteil  revolutionists  of  1H18  demanded  greater 
and  greater  concessions,  and,  after  his  return  from  (tai'ta  ((>7;«),  the 
I'ope  a.ssume<i  a  rc-actlonary  poUcv.  As  early  as  18(J0,  Kome  wa«  de- 
clared to  be  the  capital  of  united  Italy;  but  the  papal  interests  were 
maintained  by  a  garrison  of  French  soldiers.  They  were  withdrawn 
by  Louis  Najxjleon  in  18(jti,  and  "Italy,  for  the  first  time  in  a  thousand 
years,  was  free  from  the  presence  of  foreign  troops."  The  pontificate 
of  Pius  IX.  is  the  longest  on  record,  having  lasted  from  1846  to  1878. 

7.  Benjamin  Disraeli,  later  the  P^arl  of  Beaconsfleld,  was  a  Jew  by 
birth,  though  he  early  became  a  member  of  the  Church  of  England. 
He  was  first  distinguished  as  a  novelist,  but  in  18.'i7  he  entered  Parlia- 
ment, where  his  first  speech  was  a  decided  failure.  Amid  the  storms 
of  derisive«laughter,  he  exclaimed,  "I  shall  sit  down  now,  but  the  time 
will  come  when  you  will  hear  me."  In  truth,  his  career  almost  from 
that  moment  was  marked  by  unexampled  success.  He  gained  reputa- 
tion by  his  brilliant  speeches  against  free  trade,  and  raised  himself  to 
the  position  of  leader  of  the  Tory  or  Conser^^ltlve  party.  Though  he 
oppased  all  liberal  movements  toward  Reform,  he  proposed  and  carried 
in  1867  a  more  radical  Reform  bill  than  any  Liberal  stat<'snian  had  ad- 
vocateil.  It  extended  the  right  of  suffrage  to  every  householder  in  a 
borough,  and  to  every  freeholder  to  the  amount  of  40  shillings.  Disraeli 
favored  the  alliance  with  the  Turks,  and,  in  many  respects,  his  Eastern 
policy  was  contrary  to  the  best  sentiment  in  England.  It  was  during 
his  ministry  that  the  queen  assumed  the  title  of  Empress  of  India.  He 
died  April  19,  1881. 

8.  William  Ewart  Gladstone  was  born  in  Liverpool,  1809;  gradu- 
ated with  the  highest  distinction  from  Oxford,  1831,  and  the  next  year 
became  a  Conservative  member  of  Parliament.  For  some  months,  in 
4834  and  18;ij,  he  was  a  Lord  of  the  Tretvsury.  In  1841,  under  the  minis- 
try of  Sir  Robert  Peel,  he  became  vice-president  of  the  Board  of  Trade, 
and  subsequently  president.  He  has  always  been  noted  for  his  skill  in 
finance,  and  his  aversion  to  war,  having  strenuously  opposed  the  in- 
va.slon  of  the  Crimea,  the  Chinese  War  of  1857,  and  the  interventions 
in  Afghanistan  and  Eastern  Europe. 

9  Tunis  is  a  Berber  or  Moorish  town,  close  by  the  site,  of  ancient 
Carthage,  and  possibly  older  than  Carthage  itself.  For  twelve  centuries 
it  has  been  a  Moslem  city.  After  its  capture  by  Charles  V.,  In  !.%>  (see 
3465),  it  remained  nearly  40  years  under  a  Spanish  protectorate;  but,  in 
1574,  the  Turkish  power  was  restored.  Tiie  province  or  "  regency  "  of 
Tunis  extends  from  the  Mediterranean  440  miles  southward  to  the  (ireat 
Desert,  and  is  KiO  miles  wide,  from  Algeria  on  the  west,  to  Tripoli  and 
the  sea  on  the  east. 

Since  the  establishment  of  French  power  in  Algeria,  the^-e  has  been 
much  jealousy  in  Italy  concerning  her  commercialand  agricultural  in- 
terests in  Tunis,  and  the  remark  has  been  heard  in  the  Italian  parlia- 
ment that,  "Carthage  may  be  permitted  to  rise  again,  but  not  to  the 
injury  of  Rome." 

Early  in  1881,  the  murder  of  .some  French  citizens  by  Khamirs,  or 
Kroumirs,  on  the  l>order  of  Algeria  and  Tunis,  le<l  to  the  advance  of 
French  forces  into  the  latter  territory;  and  a  naval  armament  api>eareti 
before  Blzerta,  which  was  taken  May  1.  In  two  weeks  the  army  was 
before  the  gates  of  the  capital  and  hatl  imix)sed  ui)on  the  Bey,  Muha- 
med  es  Sadek,  a  treaty  which  made  him  virtually  a  vassal  of  the  French 
Republic.  Kairwan,  the  Holy  City  of  the  Mooi-s,  was  taken  Oct.  2t),  1881. 
Cntil  lately  it  had  been  sacredly  guarded  from  even  the  sight  of  Euro- 
peans, and  for  a  stranger  to  enter  one  of  its  mos(iues  wouhl  have  been 
instant  death.  It  was  from  Kairwan  that  Tarik  set  out,  in  A.  D.  711, 
for  the  conquest  of  Spain.  See  p.  183. 
Hist.-27. 


4i8 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


10.  The  present  century  has  witnessed  a  new  era  of  Egyptian  histoiy 
under  the  dynasty  of  Meliemet  Ali.  Tliis  noted  cliief  was  born  in  Rou- 
melia  in  1769.  In  1799,  at  the  head  of  the  Turkish  force,  he  took  part 
witli  the  British  in  Egypt,  against  tlie  French.  After  foreign  troops 
were  witlidrawn,  lie  was  appointed  by  tlie  sultan  first  Paslia  of  Cairo, 
and  afterwards  governor  of  Upper  Egypt.  Here  he  set  himself  against 
the  Mamelukes,  who  formed  the  military  aristocracy  of  the  country; 
and  finally  invited  all  their  chief  officers  to  a  banquet  in  tlie  citadel 
at  Cairo,  where  he  caused  them  to  be  shot  down  without  mercy.  Me- 
hemet  would  have  made  himself  the  independent  sovereign  of  Egypt, 
but  for  English  intervention.  As  it  was,  his  dependence  was  only 
marked  by  an  enormous  annual  tribute,  the  oppressed  people  being 
compelled  to  support  two  governments  instead  of  one. 

Having  served  the  sultan  well  by  quelling  a  revolt  in  Syria,  he  re- 
ceived tliat  country  as  his  dominion,  still  under  vassalage  to  Turkey, 
in  1833;  but,  in  1841,  the  sultan,  becoming  jealous  of  his  powerful  vassal, 
took  away  Syria,  making  the  pachalic  of  Egypt  hereditary  in  the  fam- 
ily of  Mehemet,  by  way  of  partial  compensation.  France  and  England 
concun-ed  in  the  treaty  by  which  this  was  arranged.  Meliemet  died  in 
1849. 

The  modernizing  of  Egypt  proceeded  much  more  rapidlji  under  his 
grand-nephew-,  Ismail,  who  became  viceroy  in  1863,  and  four  years  later 
received  the  higher  title,  KliecUv-el-Misr,  or  King  of  Egypt,  though  bur- 
dened with  a  still  heavier  tribute  to  the  sultan,  than  his  predecessors 
had  borne.  The  cost  of  his  government  to  his  people  is  said  to  have 
hardly  a  parallel  in  even  Oriental  expenditures.  His  outlay  was  chiefly, 
though  by  no  means  exclusively,  for  public  improvements.  "  He  built 
railroads,  launched  steamers,  established  telegrapli  lines,  tore  down  vil- 
lages and  constructed  new  model  villages  in  their  place,  erected  palaces; 
liglited  the  cities  with  gas  and  supplied  them  with  water;  created  the 
modern  harbors  at  Alexandria  and  Suez,  by  what  are  among  the  nota- 
ble engineering  achievements  of  the  century;  constructed  canals  for 
irrigation,  and  made  large  expenditures  for  the  Suez  Canal,  from  which 
almost  every  modern  state  reaps  greater  benefit  than  Egypt.  The  army 
was  re-organized;  a  new  and  measurably  efficient  school-system  was  put 
in  operation,  and  a  post-office  communication  established.  In  a  word, 
Ismail  undertook  in  a  lifetime  to  bring  Egypt  out  of  the  barbarism  of 
the  past  into  the  civilization  of  the  present,  to  enable  her  to  traverse  in 
thirty  years  the  ground  which  other  nations  had  occupied  centuries  in ' 
traveling." 

All  this  burdened  the  country  with  an  enormous  debt,  held  chiefly 
by  French  and  English  capitalists.  Moreover,  "modern  civilization  re- 
quired moderns  to  carry  it  on,"  and  all  the  lucrative  places  in  the 
country  were  soon  held  by  foreign  officials.  In  1875  the  khedive  barely 
escaped  bankruptcy  by  selling  his  shares  in  the  Suez  Canal  to  the  En- 
glish government.  A  joint  Commission  was  soon  afterward  sent  by  the 
governments  of  England  and  France  to  restore  order  to  Egyptian  finan- 
ces. Their  plan  was  to  entrust  the  whole  collection  and  disbursement 
of  the  revenues  of  Egypt  to  two  Controllers-Genei*al,  French  and  En- 
glish, appointed  by  the  khedive;  a  second  foreign  commission  was  to 
collect  interest  on  the  bonds,  and  a  third  to  administer  the  railways. 
The  growing  resentment  of  the  people  under  this  foreign  interference, 
has  been  led  and  fostered  by  two  men— Mohammed  Achmet,  the  False 
Prophet  of  the  Soudan,  and  Arabi  Pacha,  late  chief-of-staff  to  the  khe- 
dive, but  since  February,  1881,  in  open  revolt  against  him.  In  June, 
1882,  hundreds  of  Christians  were  massacred  by  a  Mohammedan  mob 
in  the  streets  of  Alexandria.  The  English  fleet  now  interfered  and  bom- 
barded the  city,  but  failed  to  land  a  sufficient  force  to  protect  life  and 
property.  The  European  quarter  was  set  on  firo  and  destroyed  by  the 
retreating  forces  of  Arabi,  while  a  swarm  of  Bedouins  joined  with  the 
lowest  and  worst  of  the  people  of  the  town  to  plunder  the  deserted 
houses  and  murder  all  Christians  who  were  left.  Mohammed  Achmet, 
meanwhile,  having  conquered  all  Egyptian  Soudan,  began  to  descend 
the  Nile  to  the  aid  of  his  ally.  The  combination  was  prevented  by  the 
prompt  movements  of  Sir  Garnet  Wolseley,  the  English  commander, 
who,  advancing  westward  from  the  canal,  gained  a  decisive  victory  at 
Tel-el-Kebir,  September  13th.  Arabi  surrendered  himself  to  the  En- 
glish, but  was  handed  over  by  them  to  the  Egyptian  authorities,  who 
sentenced  him  to  exile  for  life. 


CHAPTER    XVI. 

AMERICAN     AFFAIRS. 


'  L/TT  Crossing  the  Plains. 

/\\t  the  close  of  the  Revolution  (§§211-213),  the 
United  States  were  poor  even  to  ruin,  and  hardly  knew 
what  to  do  with  the  freedom  they  had  gained.  Each  state 
stood  jealously  for  its  own  independence  of  all  the  rest; 
and  the  people  who  had  fought  against  British  taxation, 
were  not  always  willing  to  pay  heavier  taxes  at  the  demand 
of  Congress.  After  four  years  of  danger,  the  National 
Convention,  at  Philadelphia,  prepared  a  federal  constitu- 
tion which  left  each  state  sovereign  in  its  own  affairs,  but 
intrusted  the  matters  in  which  all  were  equally  interested  — 
postal  service,  coinage,  and  dealings  with  foreign  nations — 
to  a  general  government. 

767.  This  constitution  was  agreed  to  by  the  several 
states,  and,  in  1789,  George  Washington' was  unanimously 
chosen  to  be  the  first  president  of  the  Union.  His  noble 
and  steadfast  character  did  much  to  establish  order,  con- 
fidence, and  peace.  After  eight  years'  service  in  this 
highest  office,  Washington  declined  to  be  reelected,  and 
was    succeeded    by   John    Adams,^  one    of  the   signers    01 

(419) 


420  MODERN  HISTORY. 

the  Declaration  of  Independence.  Thomas  Jefferson,^  the 
briUiant  author  of  that  document,  was  the  next  president. 
Under  his  administration,  the  whole  Mississippi  Valley  was 
purchased  from  France. 

768.  The  claim  of  the  British  to  search  American  vessels 
for  their  runaway  sailors,  forced  the  United  States  into  a 
war  with  the  mother-country  in  181 2.  Beginning,  almost 
without  a  navy,  to  contend  with  the  greatest  maritime 
power  on  the  globe,  the  president  gave  commissions  to  a 
swarm  of  privateers,  which  preyed  upon  British  commerce, 
and  captured,  in  the  course  of  the  war,  more  than  1,500 
vessels.  Fleets  were,  however,  built  both  on  the  ocean 
and  the  lakes,  which  gained  many  victories  in  regular 
battle. 

769.  Three  invasions  of  Canada  resulted  in  loss  and 
failure  to  the  Americans,  and  the  whole  territory  of  Michi- 
gan was  at  one  time  surrendered  to  the  British ;  but  the 
brilliant  victory  of  Commodore  Perry,^  in  Lake  Erie,  was 
followed  by  General  Harrison's^  triumphant  campaign  in 
Canada,  and  the  recovery  of  the  lost  ground.  The  Indians 
of  the  northwest,  who  were  allies  of  the  British,  were  sub- 
dued by  the  death  of  their  chief,  Tecumseh,  and  their 
confederacy  was  broken  up. 

770.  The  next  year,  the  Americans  gained  decisive  vic- 
tories at  Chippewa,  at  Lundy's  Lane  near  Niagara  Falls, 
and  at  Plattsburgh,  where  an  army  of  Wellington's  veterans 
was  defeated  on  land  at  the  same  time  that  Commodore 
McDonough  was  capturing  the  British  fleet  on  the  waters 
of  Lake  Champlain.  The  coasts  of  Virginia  and  Carolina 
were  ravaged  by  a  British  force,  which,  landing  in  the 
Chesapeake,  burned  Washington  with  all  its  public  build- 
ings; but  a  great  victory  of  General  Jackson,^  on  the  lower 
Mississippi,  defeated  a  similar  attempt  upon  New  Orleans. 
News  soon  afterward  arrived  that  peace  had  been  con- 
cluded at  Ghent. 


REVOLT  OF  THE  SPANISH  COLONIES. 


421 


771.  Our  victorious  navy  won  fresh  laurels  by  Commodore 
Decatur's  expedition  against  the  pirates  of  the  Barbary 
coast.  They  were  compelled  to  liberate  a  multitude  of 
American  captives,  to  pay  for  property  which  they  had 
destroyed,  and  to  enter  into  a  treaty  which  bound  them 
to  respect  the  flag  of  the  United  States  in  future. 

772.  The  history  of  these  States,  from  the  treaty  of 
Ghent  to  the  Mexican  War,  is  hinted  at  in  the  philosopher's 
saying:  "Happy  is  the  people  that  has  no  annals."  Every 
year  more  of  the  western  prairies  were  converted  into 
harvest-fields;  and  every  year  thousands  of  the  European 
poor  found  homes  in  the  New  World,  where  their  industry 
brought  to  light  more  of  the  untold  wealth  of  the  soil  and 
the  mines.  Navigation  by  steam,  first  successfully  accom- 
plished by  Fultonj  on  the  Hudson  River,  did  much  to 
bring  the  interior  of  the  continent  into  communication 
with  the  coast  and  with  Europe. 

773.  Taking  courage  from  the  success  of  the  United 
States,  the  Spanish  colonies  in  North  and  South  America 
resolved  to  be  free  from  the  oppressive  rule  of  Ferdinand 
Vn,  (§718).  The  moment  was  favorable  when  Spain 
was  absorbed  in  the  wars  with  Napoleon;  and,  in  18 10, 
Mexico  in  the  north,  Chili  and  the '  great  viceroyalty  of 
Buenos  Ayres  on  the  south,  declared  themselves  inde- 
pendent. The  latter  was  divided  into  the  republics  of  La 
Plata,  Uruguay,  Paraguay,  and,  ultimately,  Bolivia.  The 
five  colonies  of  Central  America,  and  the  countries  on  the 
Caribbean  sea  were  not  long  in  following  the  example. 

774.  The  great  hero  of  the  revolution  was  Simon  Bolivar, 
a  native  of  Caraccas.  While  a  youth,  studying  in  Europe, 
he  learned  all  that  was  best  in  the  principles  of  the  French 
Revolution;  and  fired  still  more  by  the  example  of  Wash- 
ington and  Franklin,  he  vowed  that  he  would  become  the 
liberator  of  his  country.  The  three  provinces  of  Quito, 
New   Granada,    and  Venezuela   united    themselves   in    the 


42  2  MODERN  HISTORY. 

Republic  of  Colombia,  with  Bolivar  as  their  president,  in 
1 819;  and  the  Spanish  Royalists  were  finally  defeated  at 
Carabobo,  in  1821. 

775.  Peru  was  the  last  of  the  South  American  countries 
to  throw  off  the  Spanish  yoke;  and  Bolivar,  with  a  Co- 
lombian army,  marched  to  its  assistance  in  1822.  The 
Spaniards  were  expelled,  and  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States  acknowledged  the  independence  of  Peru.  Its  more 
mountainous  southern  portion,  formerly  governed  by  the 
viceroy  of  Buenos  Ayres,  was  formed  into  a  separate  re- 
public, named  Bolivia,  in  honor  of  the  ''Liberator,"  who 
became  its  president. 

776.  Bolivar  desired  to  unite  all  South  America  in  a 
great  Federal  Republic,  like  the  United  States  of  the 
northern  part  of  the  continent;  but  mutual  jealousies 
made  this  impossible.  His  last  years  were  embittered  by 
the  ingratitude  of  his  countrymen,  to  whose  service  he 
had  devoted  his  whole  life  and  fortune. 

777.  Mexico,  after  twelve  years  of  revolution,  accepted 
Iturbide,  a  military  officer,  as  its  emperor  in  1822.  But 
Iturbide  had  reigned  less  than  a  year  when  he  found  that 
both  army  and  people  were  hopelessly  disaffected  toward 
his  government.  He  consented  to  be  exiled  with  an  ample 
pension;  but  returning  the  next  year  he  was  shot  as  a 
traitor.     A  federal  republic  was  then  established. 

778.  The  great  territory  of  Texas  was  included  in 
Mexico;  but,  upon  the  overthrow  of  the  federal  constitu- 
tion by  Santa  Anna,  in  1833,  Texas  seceded,  and  sought 
admission  into  the  United  States.  This  was  refused  for 
several  years;  but,  in  1844,  President  Polk  was  elected  by 
a  party  favoring  annexation,  and  Texas  was  duly  admitted, 
the  next  year,  by  act  of  Congress. 

779.  War  with  Mexico  followed.  General  Taylor,^  with 
a  small  United  States  army,  invaded  the  northern  prov- 
inces, which   he   conquered  by  his  remarkable  victories  at 


THE  WAR  FOR  THE  IWION.  423 

Monterey  and  Buena  Vista.  General  Scott*  landed  at  Vera 
Cruz,  and  capturing,  by  hard  fighting,  many  cities  and 
castles,  became  master  of  the  capital,  which  he  entered 
September  16th,  1847.  Meanwhile  General  Kearney  had 
conquered  New  Mexico,  and,  with  Fremont  and  Stockton, 
completed  the  contpiest  of  California.  These  territories 
were  coded  to  the  United  States  by  the  Treaty  of  Guada- 
lupe Hi(hil-n.  which  fixed  the  souihcni  boundary  of  Texas 
at  the  Rio  Grande. 

780.  Rich  deposits  of  gold  had  already  been  discovered 
in  California,  and  a  tide  of  adventurers,  from  all  parts  of 
the  world,  immediately  set  toward  the  diggings.  San 
Francisco,  from  an  obscure  Spanish  *' mission,"  soon  be- 
came a  thriving  city,  destined,  doubtless,  to  become  one 
of  the  greatest  in  the  world.  Its  importance  has  been 
immensely  increased  by  the  completion  of  a  railway  across 
the  continent,  in  1869,  and  by  the  opening  of  a  line  of 
steamships  to  Japan  and  China. 

781.  In  spite  of  some  discords  and  dangers,  the  bond 
of  Union,  established  in  1787  (§766),  had  been  strong 
enough,  so  far,  to  keep  the  several  states  at  peace  with 
each  other.  But  the  great  increase  of  territory,  by  the 
Mexican  War,  gave  new  force  to  the  elements  of  discord 
between  the  north  and  the  south.  The  former  favored 
a  strong  central  government,  the  latter  the  sovereignty 
of  the  several  states.  A  subject  of  bitter  controversy  was 
negro  slavery,  which  the  north  desired  to  exclude  from 
the  new  states  and  territories. 

782.  Soon  after  the  election  of  Abraham  Lincoln,  in 
i860,  eleven  southern  states  seceded  from  the  Union,  and 
chose  Jefferson  Davis,  of  Mississippi,  to  be  their  president. 
War  was  begun  in  April,  1861,  by  an  attack  of  the  Con- 
federate forces  upon  Fort  Sumter,  in  Charleston  Harbor. 
The  south  had  at  first  the  advantage  of  better  trained 
officers;    and   the   north  sustained  a  severe  defeat  at  Bull 


424  MODERN  HISTORY. 

Run,  July  21.  The  Federal  Congress  immediately  voted 
half  a  million  of  men,  and  500  millions  of  dollars,  for  a 
more  vigorous  prosecution  of  the  war. 

783.  A  large  part  of  the  Atlantic  coast  was  regained, 
by  the  Union  forces,  in  the  autumn  of  i86r;  and,  during 
the  next  two  years,  several  great  victories  reopened  the 
Mississippi  to  federal  commerce. 

So  long  as  the  southern  states  remained  in  the  Union, 
their  holding  of  slaves  had  not  been  interfered  with  by 
the  general  government.  They  were  now  beyond  its  pro- 
tection; and  the  president's  proclamation  of  January  ist, 
1863,  declared  all  negroes  free,  and  invited  them  to  enhst 
in  the  Federal  fleets  or  armies. 

784.  The  southern  armies,  under  General  Lee,  made 
their  farthest  advance  to  the  northward  in  an  invasion  of 
Pennsylvania,  June,  1863;  but  they  were  defeated,  at 
Gettysburg,  during  the  first  three  days  of  July.  This  was 
the  turning-point  of  the  war,  though  much  hard  fighting 
was  yet  to  be  done  on  both  sides.  The  next  spring  a 
general  forward  movement  was  made  by  the  Union  forces, 
from  the  Potomac  to  the  James  River,  and  from  the  Ten- 
nessee southeast  to  the  Atlantic.  Richmond  and  Peters- 
burg, in  Virginia,  were  besieged  by  the  armies  of  Grant; 
Atlanta,  Savannah,  Charleston,  and  Columbia  were  taken 
by  those  of  Sherman. 

785.  In    the    autumn    of    1864,    President    Lincoln   was 
reelected,  and  the   south,  now  nearly  exhausted,  put  forth 
her    last    resources.      After    three    days'    hard    fighting,    in 
Virginia,    the    Confederate    government    aban- 
doned   Richmond,     its    capital,    and    Generals 

Lee  and  Johnston  soon  afterward  surrendered  their  entire 
commands.  The  war  being  thus  ended,  the  whole  country- 
observed  the  fourth  anniversary  of  its  beginning  as  a  day 
of  thanksgiving.  Its  joy  was  suddenly  turned  into  grief 
and  horror  by  news  of  the  murder  of  the  president.     But 


ALASKA    PURCHASED.  425 

this  crime  did  not  break  the  peace  which  had  been  so 
happily  restored.  Andrew  Johnson,  the  Vice-President, 
quietly  succeeded  to  the  highest  office.  The  late  Confed- 
erate States  repealed  their  ordinances  of  secession,  and 
consented  to  amendments  of  the  Constitution,  which  put 
an  end  to  slavery. 

786.  The  United  States  emerged  from  the  civil  war 
with  a  debt  of  nearly  $3,000,000,000.  A  million  of  lives 
had  either  been  ended  in  battle  or  enfeebled  by  wounds 
and  disease;  industries  were  paralyzed,  while  an  immense 
issue  of  paper  money  had  tempted  the  people  to  unprece- 
dented extravagance.  Wild  speculations  were  followed  by 
great  failures  and  consequent  ''hard  times"  for  thousands 
who  were  thrown  out  of  employment.  The  government, 
however,  set  itself  to  the  work  of  redeeming  its  credit; 
immense  harvests  of  grain  brought  renewed  prosperity ;  and 
on  the  first  day  of  1879  payments  in  gold  were  resumed  by 
the  Treasury  and  the  national  banks. 

787.  Much  injury  had  been  done  to  American  commerce 
during  the  Civil  War  by  Confederate  cruisers  built  in  En- 
gland and  sailing  under  the  British  flag.  It  was  feared  that 
the  claims  thence  arising  might  lead  to  war;  but  the  two 
nations  wisely  agreed  to  refer  the  whole  matter  to  peaceful 
arbitration.  A  Board  of  Commissioners  from  Italy,  Switzer- 
land, Brazil,  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States,  met  at 
Geneva  in  the  summer  .of  1872,  and  the  sum  of  money 
which  they  awarded  for  damages  under  the  ''Alabama 
claims"  was  prompdy  paid  by  Great  Britain.  The  same 
year  a  question  of  boundary  lines  between  Washington  Ter- 
ritory and  British  Columbia  was  referred  to  the  Emperor  of 
Germany,  and  his  decision  was  accepted  by  both  nations. 

788.  In  1867,  all  the  Russian  possessions  in  America 
were  purchased  by  the  United  States.  Difficulties  have 
occurred  with  the  Indians  of  the  western  plains,  who  were 
either  dissatisfied  with  the  lands  reserved  to  them  or  justly 


426  MODERN  HISTORY. 

indignant  at  the  frauds  of  agents  and  traders  appointed  by 
the  government.  The  treacherous  Modocs  were  subdued  in 
1873,  and  their  chiefs  were  executed.  A  more  serious  war 
with  the  Sioux  in  Montana  and  Wyoming  marked  the  sum- 
mer of  1876.  General  Custer,  with  a  regiment  of  cavahy, 
was  surprised  by  a  larger  Indian  force,  and  every  white  man 
was  slain.  The  war  was  then  prosecuted  until  the  chiefs, 
many  times  defeated,  escaped  with  a  small  following  into 
Canada. 

789.  The  one-hundredth  anniversary  of  American  inde- 
pendence was  celebrated,  in  the  summer  of  1876,  by  a 
grand  exposition,  at  Philadelphia,  of  the  whole  world's 
industries  and  arts.  Dom  Pedro  11.,^  the  enlightened  and 
energetic  emperor  of  Brazil,  was  present  and  took  a  hearty 
interest  in  the  opening  ceremonies.  He  afterwards  traveled 
through  the  United  States  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  studying  whatever  might  be  of  use  to  his  great  em- 
pire, whose  natural  wealth  has  only  begun  to  be  brought  to 
light.  His  eldest  daughter  was  regent  of  Brazil  in  his 
absence. 

790.  General  U.  S.  Grant,  who  had  held  the  highest  mil- 
itary command  during  the  latter  part  of  the  Civil  War,  was 
elected  to  the  presidency  in  1868,  and  reelected  in  1872. 
He  was  succeeded  by  R.  B.  Hayes,  of  Ohio,  in  a  term  of 
great  prosperity.  In  the  autumn  of  1880,  James  A.  Gar- 
field, also  of  Ohio,  was  chosen  to  be  the  twentieth  presi- 
dent. Great  benefits  were  anticipated  from  his  long  expe- 
rience in  public  affairs  and  his  pacific  character;  but  his 
administration  was  cut  short  by  the  crime  of  an  assassin, 
and  he  died  September  19,  1881.  The  Vice-President, 
Chester  A.  Arthur,  of  New  York,  succeeded  to  the  vacant 
place. 

791.  The  British  colonies  in  America  received  a  new  con- 
stitution in  1867.  The  Dominion  of  Canada  now  consists 
of  seven  provinces,  under  the  rule  of  a  Governor-General 


RECENT  EVENTS,  427 

appointed  by  the  Crown.  Each  province  has  its  separate 
parliament  and  deputy  governor,  and  is  independent  in 
local  aflairs,  like  each  of  the  United  States.  In  1878  the 
Queen's  son-in-law,  the  Marquis  of  Lome,  ^^  became  Gov- 
ernor-General. By  an  Order  in  Council  in  1880,  the  Queen 
ordained  that  all  the  territories  of  British  America,  except- 
ing the  Island  of  Newfoundland,  should  be  included  in  the 
Dominion  of  Canada. 

792.  Several  recent  changes  have  occurred  in  other  parts 
of  the  American  continent.  The  war  of  several  years  be- 
tween Chili,  Bolivia,  and  Peru  resulted,  in  1 881,  in  the 
capture  of  the  Peruvian  capital,  the  destruction  of  the  fleet, 
and  the  overthrow  of  the  government.  A  provisional  gov- 
ernment, under  the  control  of  Chili,  was  proposed.  A 
special  envoy  was  sent  by  the  government  of  the  United 
States  to  each  and  all  the  contending  powers  in  the  hope 
of  restoring  peace  by  friendly  mediation,  and  preventing 
consequences  which,  as  President  Arthur  said  in  his  mes- 
sage to  Congress,  December  6,  1881,  might  be  **  dangerous 
to  the  interests  of  republican  government  on  this  continent, 
and  calculated  to  destroy  the  best  elements  of  our  free  and 
peaceful  civilization." 

The  long  war  of  revolution  in  Cuba  ended  in  the  surren- 
der of  the  last  insurgent  force  to  the  army  of  King  Alfonso, 
June  27,  1880. 

Read  Irving's  "  Life  of  Washington  ;  "  "  Washington's  Corre- 
spondence Concerning  Western  Lands;"  the  ♦•  Life  and  Works  of 
John  Adams,"  edited  by  his  grandson ;  Hildreth's  •♦  History  of  the 
United  States  ;  "  Randall's  or  Parton's  "  Life  of  Jefferson  ;  "  Parton's 
"Life  of  Jackson;"  Dawson's  or  Burr's  **  Life  of  Harrison;"  "Na- 
tional Portrait  Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans;"  J.  Fennimore 
Cooper's  "History  of  the  American  Navy;"  R.  S.  Ripley's  "The 
War  with  Mexico;"  "  Histories  of  the  Civil  War,"  by  the  Count  of 
Paris,  by  J.  W.  Draper,  by  Pollard,  and  in  Greeley's  "American 
Conflict ;  "  Badeau's  "  Life  of  Grant." 


428 


MODERN  HISTOR  V. 


NOTES. 

1.  George  "Washington,  born  February  22,  1732,  in  Virginia,  became 
employed  in  1748  as  a  surveyor  upon  the  lands  of  Lord  Fairfax,  and  en- 
dured much  hardsliip  for  three  yeai-s.  At  19  he  was  Adjutant-General 
with  tlie  rank  of  Major,  and  two  years  later  made  a  perilous  journey 
through  the  wilderness  to  t)ie  French  outpost  on  the  Allegheny.  As 
Colonel,  lie  served  as  aide  to  General  Braddock  (who  lost  his  life  thi'ough 
disregarding  Washington's  advice),  and,  in  1755,  became  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  Virginian  forces.  In  1758  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
House  of  Burgesses  of  Virginia,  in  1773  was  delegate  to  a  convention  at 
Williamsburg,  which  asserted  the  right  of  the  colonies  to  self-govern- 
ment, and  the  next  year  to  the  General  Congress  at  Philadelphia.  In 
1775  he  was  made  commander-in-chief  of  all  the  American  forces;  in 
1787  was  President  of  the  Convention  which  prepared  the  Constitution 
of  the  United  States;  and,  from  1789  to  1797,  was  President  of  the  Fed- 
eral Republic.  Returning  to  the  country  life  which  he  had  always 
preferred  to  public  service,  he  died  at  Mt.  Vernon,  Dec.  14,  1799. 

2.  John  Adams,  second  President  of  the  United  States,  was  born  in 
Braintree,  Mass.,  in  Oct.,  1735;  studied  law;  was  a  delegate  to  the  First 
and  Second  Continental  Congresses,  and  was  one  of  the  five  who  drafted 
the  Declaration  of  Independence.  He  was  commissioner  to  France,  1778, 
minister  to  Holland,  1781,  and  one  of  the  four  commissioners  who  con- 
cluded the  treaty  of  peace  with  Great  Britain,  1782.  He  held  the  difficult 
and  delicate  post  of  first  minister  from  the  now  liberated  states  to 
George  III.  As  Vice-president  under  Washington,  and  afterwards  as 
President,  he  belonged  to  the  Federal  party,  which  leaned  to  the  En- 
glish alliance,  and  resisted  the  efforts  of  the  French  to  drag  the  United 
States  into  war.  Retiring,  in  1801,  to  private  life,  he  lived  to  see  his  son 
become  President  in  1825,  and  died  on  the  fiftieth  anniversar.y  of  the 
signing  of  the  Declaration,  July  4, 1826.    Jefferson  died  the  same  day. 

3.  Thomas  Jefferson,  born  1743,  in  Virginia,  was  educated  at  William 
and  Mary  College,  where  he  distinguished  himself  by  hard  study  and 
especially  by  proficiency  in  languages.  Studying  law,  he  gained  an 
early  and  remarkable  success.  In  1773,  in  concert  with  Patrick  Henry 
and  other  patriots,  lie  devised  the  intercolonial  correspondence,  which 
drew  the  best  men  of  the  several  colonies  together  in  sentiment,  and 
was  of  immense  service  in  preparing  the  way  for  union.  His  profound 
knowledge  of  English  law  and  his  admirable  style  as  a  writer  gave 
Jefferson  a  leading  position  in  Congress.  From  his  pen  came  the  first 
draft  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  one  of  the  ablest  state-papers 
which  the  world  has  ever  seen.  Among  his  great  services  to  his  native 
state,  was  a  revised  code  of  laws,  and  a  plan  for  a  complete  system  of 
elementary  and  collegiate  education.  He  was  Governor  of  Virginia, 
1779-81.  In  1785  he  succeeded  Dr.  Franklin  as  minister  to  Paris,  where 
he  spent  four  of  the  happiest  years  of  his  life,  and  formed  that  strong 
attachment  to  France  and  the  interests  of  the  French  people,  which  led 
him  into  opposition  to  Adams  and  the  Federal  party  during  the  wars 
of  the  French  Revolution  (See  note  2).  As  President,  1801-1809,  he  intro- 
duced great  simplicity  into  the  style  of  Executive  living;  sent  a  written 
message  to  Congress  instead  of  going  in  state  to  deliver  a  personal  ad- 
dress, and  was  accessible  to  the  humblest  who  desired  to  speak  with 
him.  Declining  a  re-election  after  two  prosperous  terms  of"  office,  he 
spent  his  last  years  in  private  and  social  life,  and  died  1826. 

4.  Oliver  Hazard  Perry  was  a  native  of  Newport,  R.  I.,  and  was 
only  28  years  of  age  when  he  first  built  his  fieet  from  the  forests  by 
Lake  Erie,  then  fought  and  gained  a  complete  victory. 

5.  "William  Henry  Harrison,  born  in  Virginia,  1773,  entered  the  U.  S. 
army  1791;  represented  the  Northwest  Territory  in  Congress,  1799;  was 
Governor  of  Indiana  Territory,  1801-1813;  many  times  defeated  the  In- 
dians and  their  British  allies;  represented  the  Cincinnati  dii^trict  in 
Congress,  1817,  1818;  and  became  U.  S.  Senator  from  Ohio  in  1824.  In 
1828  he  was  U.  S.  minister  to  Colombia;  but,  being  recalled  in  1829,  he 
spent  some  ten  years  at  his  farm  near  North  Bend,  Ohio.  He  became 
President  of  the  United  States  in  March,  1841,  but  died  one  month  later. 


NOTES.  429 


6.  Andrew  Jackson  was  born  in  ('arolina,  of  Irish  parentage.    His 

cIiiUlluKMl  was  sptMit  in  vxmxi  poverty,  with  few  o|)i>ortunltieH  for  eiluni- 
tlon;  but,  having  stiulii'd  law,  !»«•  reiu<)ve<l,  ait  tln>  age  of  21,  ti>  Naxh- 
ville,  Tt'MiU'ssi'c,  aiul  soon  uhtaiiuMl  a  large  prartiee.  lie  was  a  member 
of  the  Convention  wliieh  framed  tlu«  State  Constitution  for  Tennessee 
in  17!h;,  aintl  was  the  sole  rejuest'iitatlve  of  that  state  In  Congress,  un- 
til, the  next  yej»r,  he  beeainu'  Its  Senaitor.  Vruin  175W  t«>  1S(>T,  hf  was 
Ju<lg«'  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Tennesse«>.  Volunteering  for  the  War 
of  1S12,  .laekson  rendered  brilliant  service  against  the  Creelc  Indians,  and 
afterwanls  aigainst  the  l^rltlsh  In  the  decisive  liavttle  of  New  Orleans. 
After  a  sueeessful  war  against  the  Semlnoles,  he  was  made  (Jovernor 
of  Florida  in  1S21;  was  V.  S.  Senator  from  Tennessee  in  182.%  and  was 
elected  President  of  tlie  Vnlted  States  In  1S2S.  Always  strong  In  his 
nei-sonal  ami  oarty  animosities,  he  began  his  admlnlstnitlon  l)y  sweep- 
ing all  his  i)oIltleaii  opponents  from  nubile  ollhes,  removing  ten  times 
as  manv  olheials  in  one  year,  jis  all  the  preceding  i*resi(h>nts  had  done 
in  40.  He  acted  with  energy  and  decision  jigailnst  movements  for  dis- 
union of  tlie  states  during  bis  tli-st  term  of  oflice.  The  S  years  of  his 
aclminlstrathm  were  a  perlotl  of  unexampled  prosperity,  biit  lils  tinan- 
elal  measures  led  to  a  disastrous  crisis  under  his  successor.  Retiring 
from  public  life  in  ia37,  Jaclcson  died  near  Nasliville,  in  IfMij. 

7.  Gen.  Zachary  Taylor  was  Ijorn  in  Orange  Co.,  Virginia,  178^1,  but 
during  his  Infancy  tbe  family  removed  to  I^)Ulsvllle,  Kentucky,  wliere 
he  was  educated.  Entering  the  armv  in  1W8,  he  served  as  captain  in 
tlie  War  of  ISI2,  and  for  many  years  afterWards  was  engaged  in  Indian 
warfare,  completing,  in  IS12,  Uie  work  which  Gen.  Jackson  luid  begun 
against  the  Seminoles  in  Floritla.  In  tlie  Mexican  War  he  was  one  of 
tlie  most  prominent  and  successful  Actors.  In  1848  he  was  elected  to  be 
I'resident  of  tlie  United  States.  The  chief  events  of  his  short  adminis- 
tration were  the  rapid  settlement  of  California  owing  tor  the  recent  dis- 
covery of  gold,  and  the  debates  in  Congress  upon  the  nuestlon  of  her 
admission  to  the  Union  as  a  free  state.  During  tlie  violent  discussion 
President  Taylor  died,  July  9,  1850,  after  only  10  months  of  ottice. 

8.  Gen.  Winfleld  Scott,  also  a  native  of  Virginia,  first  distinguished 
liimseif  greatly  in  the  War  of  1812,  in  which  Tie  rose  to  tlie  rank  of 
Mjijor-(ieneral.  At  its  close  he  received  a  gold  medal  and  the  thanks 
of  Congress  for  his  "uniform  gallantry  and  good  conduct  In  sustaining 
the  reputation  of  the  arms  of  the  United  States."  He  held  the  chief 
command  in  the  war  with  Mexico,  and  wtis  subseciuently  tbe  candidate 
of  the  Whig  party  for  the  Presidency,  but  was  defeated  by  tbe  Demo- 
cratic vote  for  Pierce.  The  honorary  rank  of  Lieutenant  (Jeiieral  was 
created  for  him  In  1855,  to  cease  at  his  death.  At  the  outbreak  of  the 
Civil  War,  Gen.  Scott  threw  the  whole  weiglit  of  his  influence  on  the 
side  of  the  Union,  but  soon  afterward,  at  the  age  of  75,  retired  from  ac- 
tive duty,  and  died  at  West  Point,  1866. 

9.  Dom  Pedro  II.  was  born  at  Rio  .Janeiro,  Dec.,  1825.  When  he  was 
only  six  years  old,  his  father,  Petlro  I.,  alxlicated  the  Brazilian  tlirone 
In  his  favor,  and,  returning  to  Portugal,  resumed  the  crown  of  that 
kingdom,  which  he  had  previously  bestowed  upon  his  daughter,  Msirla 
da  Gloria.  The  young  emperor  was  declared  of  age  In  ISIO,  wliile  bukliig 
some  months  of  fifteen  years.  The  develoimient  of  the  yet  unexplored 
resources  of  his  empire  by  the  encouragement  of  .science  was  among 
his  earliest  cares;  he  delights  in  the  conversation  of  scientific  men, 
and  liiinself  presides  at  examinations  in  schools  and  colleges.  In  his 
extensive  travels  he  takes  notiiing  at  sew)nd-hand  which  tlie  most  en- 
ei^etlc  industry  will  enable  him  to  see  jind  investigate  for  himself: 
printing-houses,  factories,  telegraphs,  telephones,  and  every  form  ol^ 
applied  .science  engage  his  attention.  He  has  i)een  compareo,  certainly 
to  his  own  advantage,  with  an  another  imperial  Peter  (fJ591)  who  be- 
came a  traveler  for  the  benefit  of  his  realm. 

10.  The  Marquis  of  Lome  is  the  eldest  son  of  the  Duke  of  Argyle, 
distinguished  as  a  writer  and  lecturer  on  phllosopbical  sul)jects,  not 
less  tlian  as  holding  the  highest  rank  and  belonging  to  one  of  the  old- 
est and  most  powerful  families  in  Scotland. 


QUESTIONS    FOR    REVIEW.  — BOOK    III. 


Section 

1.  How  was  kingly  power  affected  by  the  introduction 

of  gunpowder?  440 

2.  Describe   the   condition    of    Italy,    and    the   wars    of 

Charles  VIII.  of   France.  441-443 

3.  What  were  their  results  ?  444 

4.  Describe  the  wars  of  Louis  XII.  in  Italy.  445-447 

5.  The  character  of  Leo  X.s  Of  Ferdinand  of  Spain.  448 

6.  The  character  and  reign  f»f  Francis  I. 

449-452,  465,  468,  474 

7.  What  led  to  the  Reformation  ?  453,  455 

8.  Tell  the  story  of  Luther.                                                 454,  456,  457 

9.  Why  were  the  reformers  called  Protestants?  458 

10.  What  nations  embraced  their  doctrines  ?  459 

11.  Describe  Turkish  progress  under  Solyman.                460,  462-467 

12.  Tell  the  story  of  Pope  Clement  VII.  461,   492 

13.  What  relation  was  Charles  V.  to  Charles  the  Bold  of 

.Burgundy?                                                          413,  424,   444 

14.  Describe  his  reign  and  retirement.  450-471 

15.  Loyola  and  the  Jesuits.  472 

16.  The  reign  of  Louis  XII.  in  France.  473 

17.  Henry  II.,  and  the  Guises.  475-478 

18.  Catherine  de' Medici,  her  sons,  the  religious  wars.  478-485 

19.  What    was    done    in    England    during    the    reign    of 

Henry  VII.  ?  486,   487 

20.  Describe  the  reign  and  character  of  Henry  VIII,  488-497 

21.  Tell  the  story  of  Wolsey.  490-493 

22.  Of  Edward  VI.,  Somerset,  and  Northuml)erland.  497-500 

23.  Of  Jane  Grey  and  Mary  Tudor.  499-502 

24.  Of  Elizabeth.  503-511 

25.  Describe  the  Netherlands  under  Charles  V.  512,    513 

26.  The  policy  and  the  agents  of  Philip  II.  514-524 

27.  The  character  and  measures  of  William  the  Silent.  514-521 
(430J 


QUESTIONS.—BOOK  IIL 


431 


28.  What   became  of   the  seven   northern,    and   the   ten 

southern  provinces ?                                      517,  519,  523 

29.  Describe  James  I.  of  England,  and  the  Puritans.  526,   527 

30.  Tell  the  story  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh.  507,  528 

31.  What  colonies  were  formed  in  James'  reign?  529 

32.  What  was  his  foreign  policy  ?  530 
T^Tf,  Describe  Charles  I.  and  his  dealings  with  parliament.  531,   532 

34.  Tell  the  stories  of  Hampden,  Strafford,  Laud.  533-535 

35.  Describe  the  two  parties  and  the  civil  war.  536,    537 

36.  What  became  of  Charles  I.  ?  538 

37.  What  differences  between  Scotland  and  England  fol- 

lowed his  death  ?  539 

38.  Describe  the  war  with  Holland.  540 

39.  Tell  the  story  of  the  Long  Parliament.  535,    541 

40.  Of  Cromwell'^  Protectorate,  and  what  followed.  542,   543 

41.  Describe  the  restoration  and  character  of  Charles  H.  544-546 

42.  What  plots,  real  or  supposed,  during  his  reign?  547,    548 

43.  What  parties  arose  ?    What  do  we  owe  to  the  Whigs  ?  549 

44.  Name  some  great  men  of  the  time.  550 

45.  Describe  the  reign  of  James  H.  551,    552 

46.  Tell  the  history  of  William  of  Orange.  553-555 

47.  Of  the  last  of  the  Stuarts.  556,    557 

48.  How  were  the  Hapsburg  dominions  divided  upon  the 

death  of  Charles  V.  ?  559 

49.  Describe  the  wars  with  the  Turks.  560-563 

50.  Maximilian  H.  and  Rudolph  H.  562 

51.  The  beginning  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War.  564 

52.  Wallenstein's  character  and  career.  565  -  570 

53.  Gustavus  Adolphus.  567-569 

54.  Describe  the  remaining  years  of  the  war.  570,    571 

55.  What  was  accomplished  by  the  Treaty  of  W^estphalia?  572,    573 

56.  Describe  Portuguese  settlements  in  the  east  and  west.  574-576 

57.  The  policy  of  Spain  toward  her  colonies.  577-579 

58.  The  French  settlements  in  America.  580-582 

59.  The  Dutch              "                       "  583 

60.  The  English          "                      «*  584 

61.  Tell  the  history  of  Sweden  to  Christina's  abdication.  585,    586 

62.  Describe  the  constitution  of  Poland.  587 

63.  Tell  the  history  of  Russia  from  Ivan  HL  to  Peter  L  588,    589 

64.  The  story  of  Peter  the  Great.  59© -597 

65.  Of  Charles  XH.  of  Sweden.  593-596 


432  QUESTIONS.— BOOK  III. 

66.  The  early  history  of  Prussia.  598,    599 

67.  Describe  its  second  king.  600,   601 

68.  Tell  the  story  of  Frederic  the  Great.                602,  603,  606,   607 

69.  Describe  the  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession.  602-605 

70.  Catherine  the  Great  and  the  Partitions  of  Poland.     608-610 

71.  The  first  of  the  Bourbons  and  his  reign  in  France.     611 -613 

72.  The  regency  of  Marie  de  Medici.  614 

73.  Tell  the  history  and  policy  of  Richelieu.  615-617 

74.  Describe  the  reign  of    Louis  XIV.,   and  the  circum- 

stances of  its  beginning.  618-620 

75.  What  followed  Mazarin's  death?  621 

76.  Describe    Louis'   wars    in    the    Spanish    Netherlands 

and   Holland.  622-624 

77.  His  persecutions  of  the  Huguenots.  625,   626 

78.  *His  wars  on  the  Rhine.  627 

79.  The   causes    and    incidents   of   the   War   of  the 

Spanish  Succession.  628-630 

80.  Louis'  death,  and  the  writers  of  his  age.  631,    632 

81.  What  was  done  during  the  Regency?  633 

82.  In  what  wars  did  Louis  XV.  engage  ?  634,    635 

83.  What  possessions  were  lost  by  France  ?  636 

84.  Describe  the  first  15  years  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XVI.     637-639 

85.  The  reign  of  George  I.  in  England.  640-641 

86.  Of    George    II.,    and    the    invasion    of  the 

young  Pretender.  642,   643 

87.  What    part   had    England    and    her    colonies   in  the 

Seven  Years'  War  ?  644  -  646 

88.  Describe  George  III.,  aud  his  policy  in  England  and 

America.  647-649 

89.  Tell  the  story  of  the  American  Revolution.  650-652 

90.  What    were    the    consequences    to    England    of  the 

French  Revolution?  653,    654 

91.  Describe  George  IV.,  and  his  reign.  655,    656 

92.  The  reign  of  William  IV.  657,    658 

93.  The   condition    of  Victoria's   empire   during  the 

early  years  of  her  reign.  659-661 

94.  The  war  in  the  Crimea.  662-665 

95.  The  rise  of  the  British-Indian  Empire.  666,    667 

96.  What  was  done  by  Warren  Hastings?  668,   669 

97.  Describe  the  wars  and  dealings  with  China.  670,    671 

98.  The  Sepoy  Rebellion.  672-674 


QUESTIONS,— BOOK'  III.  433 

99.     Tell  the  history  of  Australia.  675 

100.     What  other  dominions  has  England  in  the  East?  676 

loi.     What  causes  led  to  the  French  Revolution?  677,  678 

102.  What  was  done  by  the  National  Assembly?  679 

103.  What,  by  the  mob  ?  680 

104.  Describe  the  Clirondists,  the  Jacobins,  and  the  Reign 

of  Terror.  681-683 

105.  What  became  of  the  royal  family?  684,   685 

106.  W^hat,  of  the  three  leaders  of  the  Jacobins?  686-688 

107.  Describe  the  Coalition.     What  was  done  at  Toulon  ?  689 

108.  Effects  of  the  Revolution  in  Paris.    In  the  West.  690 

109.  What  change  was  made  by  the  Directory?  691 
no.     What  was  done  in  Holland,  Belgium,  and  Italy?  692,   693 

111.  Describe  Bonaparte's  Egyptian  campaign,  694 

112.  How  was  the  Second  Coalition  broken  up?  695 

1 13.  What  successive  titles  had  Napoleon  ?  695,   697 

1 14.  What  changes  did  he  make  in  Germany  ?  698,  699 

115.  Describe  the  death  of  Nelson.  700 

116.  What  was  done  by  Napoleon  in  the  North  ?  701-703 

117.  In  the  south  of  Europe?  704-705 

118.  In  Austria  in  1809?  706 

119.  Describe    the    causes    and    incidents  of   Napoleon's 

war  with  Russia.  707-709 

120.  The  campaigns  of  18 13,  and  18 14,  710- 712 

121.  The  second  reign  of  Napoleon,  and  its  close.  713 

122.  W^hat  was  done  by  the  Congress  of  Vienna?  714-716 

123.  Describe  the   Holy  Alliance,  and  its  dealings  with 

Spain,  Italy,  and  Germany.  717-720 

124.  Tell  the  story  of  the  Greek  Revolution.  721-723 

125.  Describe  the  Revolutions  of  1830.  724,    725 

126.  The  reign  of  Louis  Philippe.  726-728 

127.  The  Revolutions  of  1848.  729-735 

128.  How   did    Napoleon    III.    become    Emperor   of    the 

French?  736-738 

129.  Describe  the  War  of  Italian  Nationality.  739-441 

130.  The  French  interference  in  Mexico.  742 

131.  The  Seven   Weeks'   War  and  its  consequences 

in  Austria.  743-745 

132.  The  Spanish  Revolution,  and  candidates  for  the 

crown.  747 

133.  The  Franco-Prussian  War.  748-753 
Hist.— 28. 


434 


QUESTIONS.— BOOK  III. 


134.  The  War  of  the  Commune.  754^    755 

135.  What  recent  changes  in  Italy,  France,  and  Spain  ?         756-758 

136.  What  has  occurred  in  Turkey,  Russia,  and  Ireland  ?  759-763,  765 

137.  What  important  treaties  signed  1878-1880? 

138.  Describe  the  Afghan  War. 

139.  How  did  the  United  States  become  settled  after  the 

Revolution  ? 

140.  Describe  the  war  with  England. 

141.  The  following  years. 

142.  The  Spanish  American  Revolutions. 

143.  The  annexation  of  Texas  and  its  consequences. 

144.  How  has  California  gained  importance  ? 

145.  Describe  the  war  between  the  States,  its  causes  and 

results. 

146.  Mention  some  recent  events. 


762, 

763 

764 

766 

768. 

-770 

n^^ 

772 

773- 

-777 

778, 

779 

780 

781- 

-787 

788- 

-792 

DESCENT,  FROM  EDWARD  III.,  OF  THE  THREE  ROYAL 
HOUSES  OF  LANCASTER,  YORK,  AND  TUDOR. 


Edward  III. 


Edward,  Pr.  of 
Wales,  d.  1376. 


Richard  II. 
deposed,  1399. 


Lionel,  Duke  of 
Clarence. 

I 
Philippa  m. 
Edm.  Mortimer, 
Earl  of  March. 

Rog.  Mortimer, 
Earl  of  March. 


J.  of  Gaunt,  m. 
Duke  of  Lan- 
caster. 

Henry  IV. 


Edm.  Mortimer, 
Earl  of  March, 
d.  1424. 


Anne  Mortimer 
m.  Richard,  E. 
of  Cambridge. 


Henry  V.  m 
Catherine  of 
France,  who  m. 

Henry  VI. 

Edward,  Pr.  of 
Wales,  d.  1471. 


3  Cath.  Swynford.  Edmund,  D.  of 
I  York. 

John  Beaufort,  | 

E.  of  Somerset.     Richard,  Earl 
I  of  Cambridge, 

iohn  Beaufort,      beheaded,  1415. 
).  of  Somerset.  | 

L ^    Richard,  D.  of 

York,  died  at 
Wakefield, 
2  Owen  Tudor.        1460. 


Edm.  Tudor,      . 

Earl  of  I 

Richmond,  m    Margaret 
Beaufort. 


Henry  VII. 


Edward  IV. 

I 


George,  D.  of 
Clarence. 


Richard  III. 


Elizabeth 

m.  Henry  VII. 


Edward  V. 
d.  1483. 


Richard, 
of  York. 


Duke 


Edward,  E.  of       Margaret, 
Warwick,  Countess  of 

beheaded,  1499.      Salisbury, 

beheaded,  1541. 


INDEX 


Fintl  tiamf\s  of  wvvreUnxx  under  names  of  tin n  I'.^jitrtivc  countries.  Where 
the  lust  M  cnrUinuous,  only  one  dale,  that  of  accession,  is  added  to  each 
name.    Figures  refer  to  pages. 


Abbas'sides,  180, 182, 18:?,  221. 

Abelard  (Jib  jV  lar),  it7,  250. 

A' bra  ham,  25. 

Acha'ia,  Province  of,  125. 

Achee'an  League,  102,  mi,  105. 

Achee'ans,  .■).'^,  tU. 

Achilles  (Jikil'K^z),  55,  97. 

Acre  la'ker),  2U<>,2U8. 

Actium,  137. 

Adams,  John,  419,  428. 

Adolphus,  IV,  KM),  162. 

Adrian  VI.,  Popt'.  2«i7,  272. 

Adriatic,  !Mi,  l,S(i,  2(i7,  221. 

.ffigean  (a-«e'an)  Sea,  21,  36,  58,  61,  72. 

^'KOS  I'ot'ami,  76. 

jEo'lians,  58. 

-ffi'qui.  117. 

^Es^chylus,  a5-87. 

JEto'lian  League,  102. 

Afghanistan  (afghan'istan),  414,  417. 

Africa,  8,  18,  19,  -Si,  42,  47,  48,  179,  183, 

274. 
Africa,  Province  of,  12.5,  i:i2,  135,  159, 

l(i<».  174. 
Agamem'non,  55. 
Agesila'us,  76-78, 82,  8.3. 
Agincourt  (Ji  zhan  koor'),  229. 
Agra'rian  Laws,  11.3,  115, 117, 129. 
Aix  (Aks^  in  Provence,  131. 
Aix-la-Chapelle,  treaiie-s  of,  187, 189, 

■M:i,  :i-)2. 
Al'aric,  160-1««. 
Albert  tlie  Great,  theologian,  247, 

2.50. 
Albert,  Prince  of  Saxe-Coburg,  367, 

.371. 
Albigenses,  2.34,  2Xi. 
Alcibi'ades,  75,  76,  81. 
Alemanni,  159.  169,  17.3. 
Alexander  the  (ireat.  See  Macedon. 
Alexan'dria,  iVj,  m,  100,  101,  137,  162, 

17!»,  .3.S,->,  418. 
Algonquins,  3.30,  334. 
Al'lia  River,  battle  at,  114. 
Alps,  ;^  I,  114,  12:5,  2«M>. 
Alsace  (al'-sace),  -.Vi),  409,  410. 
Alva,  Dukeof, !««,;{()(). 
Ambrose,  Arcl)l)ishop  of  Milan,  160, 
America,  8,  2.>>-2.j{t,  276,  277,  303,  311, 

329-3;J5,  353-357,  419-429. 


American  Independence,  Declara- 
tion of,  ;{64,  42(),  428;  War  of,  .347,  357, 
.%2-,3<)4,  373;  Anniversary  of,  426. 

Amiens  (a  m^  ilN'),  Treaty  of,  385, 
;{8«i. 

Amphictyon'ic  Council,  60. 

Amsterdam,  .338,  ;i52. 

Anac'reon,  58. 

Anaxag'oras,  88. 

Aniou  (OX  zhoo')  County,  188,207,232. 

Anqou,  Charles,  Ct.  of,  214,  2:». 

Anqou,  Ijouis,  Duke  of,  2:i7. 

Anjou,  Francis,  Duke  of,  'M. 

Aniou,  Pliilin,  Duke  of.  See  Spain, 
Philip  V. 

Anne  IJoleyn  (bool'in),289,290. 

Anne  of  Austria,  .3.50,  ;«1. 

Anne  of  Bohemia,  246. 

Anne  of  Brittany,  2.54,  268. 

Anne  of  Cleves,  290,  29(),  297. 

Antioch,  on  the  Oron'tes,  99, 104, 2W, 
205,208. 

Antony,  Mark,  101, 136, 1.37. 

Antwerp,  2i«>,  .301,  m 

Ap'ennines,  16,  114. 

Aphrodi'te,  56,  62. 

A^pis,  4ti. 

Apol'lo,  56-62,  74,  86,  108. 

Aqui'nas,  Thos.,  theologian,  247,  250. 

Aquitaine',  181,  l!>i»,  •_'<I7,  2.32,  234,  240. 

Arabia,  Arabs,  12,  20,  178-18;?. 

Arabi  (00  rii'lM"')  Pasha',  418. 

A'ral,  Sea  of,  ;?2. 

Arbe'la,  battle  of,  .37,  38,  ft>. 

Arca'dians.  <m;  league  of,  78. 

Archangel,  2<»3,  *r7. 

Architecture,  10, 1.3, 17,  18,  47,  90,  91. 
141,  174, 196. 

Arctic  Ocean,  .335, 337. 

A'res,  God  of  war,  56, 82. 

Aristi'des,  6t),  72. 

Aristoph'anes,  87. 

Aristotle,  '.^o,  J4 

Ar'yans,  10,  13, 16, 17,  21,  .31,  40,  52,  5.3, 
l.-)8. 

Asia,  7-.39.  .57,  9.5-98,  125,  17.5-2a3,  209. 
220,221,223,414. 

Asia  Mmor,  9,  21,  .32,  .5.3,  .51,  60,72,  94, 
(»,  100,  126,  1.5i),  160,  2M. 

Asia,  Bom.  Province  of,  132, 138. 


(43.5) 


Ass 


INDEX. 


Bra 


Assyria,  Assyrians,  10-15,  18,  27,  144. 
Kings  of: 

Tiglathi-iiin  (B.  C.  1250),  11. 

Tiglath-pileser  I.  (1120-11(K)),  11. 

Iva-lush  IV.  (810-781^,  11,  18. 

Tiglath-pileser  II.  (745-727),  12. 

Sargon  (721),  12,  14,  20. 

Sennacherib  (705),  12,  13. 

Esarhaddon  (081-067),  12,  50. 

Asshur-bani-pal  (064-042),  12,  18. 
Astu'rias,  12(i,  179. 
Athe'na, .")(;,  02,  00, 90. 
Athens.  Athenians,  35,  36,  41,  63-83, 

80-91,  102,  15.5. 
Atlantic  Ocean,  47,  188,  255. 
At'tica,  54,  5;3,  70. 
At'tila,  101,  10:3. 

Auerstadt  (ow'er  stat)  battle,  ;387. 
Augsburg  (owgz'-boorg),  273. 
Au'gurs,  10!>,  113,116. 
Aurungzebe,  372. 
Australia,  375,  376. 
Austria,  Austrians,  218,  337,  ai2,  343, 

;iS.-,.  396,  406,  407,412,  413. 
Austria,  Dukes  of,  207,  219,  320. 
Austria,  Maria      Theresa,       Arch- 
duchess of,  342-345. 
Austria,  Hereditary  Emperors  of: 

Francis  I.  (1804),  386,  389. 

Ferdinand  (18:35),  400. 

Francis  Joseph  I.  (1)^8),  400,406,  407. 
Austria,  House  of.    See  Hapsburgs. 
A'vars,  185. 

Avignon  (a  ven  yoN'),  215,  236. 
Azores',  258. 


Babel,  Bab'ylon,  9-18,  20, 32,  95, 96,  98. 
Babylonian  Empire,  14-17,  22,  44. 
Babylonian  Empire,  Sovereigns  oft 

Nabonas.sar  (B.  C.  747),  14. 

Nabopolassar  (625),  14, 15. 

Nebuchadnezzar  (6(V4-561),  15,  20,  27, 

28,  32. 

Nabonadius(555),  16. 

Belshazzar  (,5;39-538),  16,  32. 
Bac-chan'tes,  57. 
Bacon,  Francis,  295. 
Bacon,  Roger,  247,  251. 
Bactria,  Bactrians,  10,  32,  38,  40,  52, 

99,  100. 
Bagdad,  180,  laS,  221. 
Balakla'va,  368. 

Balboa,  Vasco  Nunez  de,  256,  259. 
Baltic  Sea,  19,  23,  210,  217,  315,  337,  339, 

:368. 
Bankers,  Italian,  215,  216. 
Barbarians,  7,  8,  21,  m,  34,  35, 114,  131, 

152-154,  158-ia3,  167,  220,  221. 
Barbarians,  so  called  by  Greeks,  59, 

78. 
Barbaros'sa  of  Algiers,  274. 
Barnet,  battle  at,  231. 
Bartholomew,  St.,  massacre  on  day 

of.  282,  28;j. 
Basle  (bal),  Council  at,  244. 
Bastile  (-feel'),  destroyed,  380,  393. 


Batavian  Re  public,  formed  of  United 
Netherlands,  ;iS4. 

Bavaria,  Bavarians,  185,  188,  343. 

Bavaria,  Charles  Albert,  Elector  of, 
342  (Charles  VII.  Emperor). 

Bazaine',  Gen.,  408,  409. 

Beaconsfield,  Benjamin  Disraeli, 
Earl  of,  414,  417. 

Beaujeu  (bo  zhu),  Anne  of,  280. 

Becket,  Thomas,  225,  226,  2:32,  234. 

Bede,  The  Venerable,  247,  249. 

"  Beggars,"  The,  299-302. 

Belgian  Republic,  formed  of  Aus- 
trian Netherlands,  'o^A,  385. 

Belgium,  Kingdom  of,  396,  398. 

Belgium,  King  of:  Leopold  I.  (A.D. 
LS:;0-1865),  ;398,416. 

Bel'grade,  222. 

Belisa'rius,  174, 176. 

Bengal,  373,  377. 

Berlin,  341,  344,  387. 

Berlin,  Congresses  at,  413. 

Berlin  Memorandum,  412. 

Bernard'  of  Clairvaux  (vo'),  206,  212. 

Beth'lehem,  141, 207. 

Bible,  Hebrew,  28;  trans,  into  Greek, 
101;  into  Russ.,  195;  into  English, 
172,  307,  318;  source  of  Lombard 
Laws,  171;  printed,  254;  in  Switzer- 
land, 272. 

Bismarck,  Prince,  406,  407,  416. 

Bithyn'ia,  21, 154. 

Black  Death,  The,  236. 

Black  Sea,  (Euxine),  21,  41,  55,  76, 138, 
159,  216, 220,  a37,  368,  398,  412. 

Blake,  Admiral,  311. 

Blenheim  (-hime),  ;354. 

Boccaccio  (bok  katch'o),  248,  252. 

Boemond  of  Taranto,  204,  212 

Bceo'tia,  74,  77,  85. 

Bohemia,  Bohemians,  171,  242-244, 
24(),  273,  :321-324,  ;343. 

Bolivar,  Simon,  421,  422. 

Bolivia,  422,  427. 

Bologna  (bo  lon'ya),  146,  247,  327. 

Bombay,  373. 

Bonaparte,  Jerome,  388,  409. 

Bonaparte,  Joseph,  388,  389. 

Bonaparte,  I^ouls,  388,  389. 

Bonaparte,  Napoleon,  383-388,  393. 
See  J^rance,  Rulers  of. 

Bossuet  (bos  swa'),  355. 

Boston,  Tea  destroyed  at,  363. 

Bosworth,  battle,  231. 

Bothwell,  Earl  of,  293. 

Boulogne  (boo  Ion'),  275. 

Bourbon,  Duke  of,  267,  286. 

Bourbon,  House  of,  282,  285,  286,  348- 
359,  ;388,  395,  396. 

Bourbon,  House  of,  in  Spain,  354, 
:]55,  388,  407,  411. 

Bourbon,  Family  Compact,  342,  356, 
:i57. 

Boyle,  Rob't,  314,  319. 

Boyne,  R.,  battle  at,  316. 

Bozzaris  (hot  za'res^,  Marco,  397.  402. 

Braddock,  Gen.,  362,  428. 

Bragan'zas,  334,  388. 


(436) 


Bra 


INDEX. 


Con 


Braail  (brfl  »ll'),  avi,  .'tS),  A'M,  S88, 425, 

•I2IJ. 
Brazil'.  IVdro  11.,  Emi^eror  of,  42tt, 

42!». 
Bretigny  (brot-eeu'ye),  Treaty   of, 

22S. 
Briel  (brcel),  .ftM). 

Britain,  1!»,  -Jl,  l.M,  IH,  \m,  !">!>.  KK). 
Brit'tany,  Ainu*,  Duchess  of, '2.J4, 208. 
Bruce,  Robert,  220,  227. 
Bru'ges,  217. 

Bru'sa,  Ottoman  Capital,  221. 
Brussels',  '^\  .'tta 
Brussels',  Tnlon  of,  :>()1. 
Buckinfrham,  (M'o.,  Duke  of,  .')0S,  ;U8. 
Bu'da,  lluugaiiau  Capital,  27.*J,  274. 
Buena  Vistu  (bwiVna),  42;J. 
Buenos  Ayres   (bwivnOs  I'res),  421, 

122. 
Bulgaria,  Bulgarians,  171,   175,    177, 

H2.  11. -5. 
Bunker  I II 11,  battle  of,  'm>,  ;{04. 
Bunyan,  .lohn,  811. 
Bur'gundy,  Ikii-gundians,    15!>,    109, 

ISl,  1S7,  l.S!»,  19!t,2{.S-241,207,  298. 
Burgundy,  Dukes  of: 

Philip  tlu"  Hold  (A.  D.i;««),2:J7,2il. 

John  the  Fearless  ( 14011,  2:?7. 

Philip  the  Gcxxl  (1419),  2{7,  2:W,  211. 

Charles  the  Bold  (1107i,  iiS,  2W,  211. 
Burgundy,  Duches.s  of,  Mary  (1477- 

14S_'),  2;«t,  215. 
Byron,  Lord,  ,%o. 
Byzan'tium,  154. 


Cabot,  J.  and  S.,  255,  259. 

Ca'diz,  ••a)2. 

Cad'mus,  01. 

Cee'sar,  Julius,  134-l.'i9. 

Cee'sar  ( )etavianus,  1:?7.    See  Homan 

Emperors:  Augustus. 
Cee'sar,  (title),  135, 152,  342,  386. 
Cairo,  .5.^.5. 

Calais  ( kJi  liV),  227, 2:»,  292, 296. 
Calcut'ta.  37:^. 
Califor'nia,  257,  297,  \%\ 
Calvin,  John,  272,  278,  279, 282. 
Cambray',  League  of,  265:  Treaty  at, 

207. 
Campo  Formio,  Treaty  of,  385. 
Canaanites,  19,  25. 
Can'ada,  .ifti,  :«1,  366,  426,  427. 
Canos'sa,  191,  1J«, 
Canterbury,  225, 2i2,  318. 
Canton,  374. 

Capet  ( kii  pft'),  199,  2:^1-239,  381. 
Cappadocia,  21,  ;^. 
Carabo'bo,  battle  at,  422. 
Carbonari  (carbona'rl),  (Ital.  secret 

society  I.  .'$!»«). 
Car'chemish  (-ke-),  21.  44. 
Carlos,  Spanish  prince,  399. 
Carlos,  ( Jrandson  of  al>ove,  407. 
Carlotta,  F.mpress.  406,  416. 
Carolina,  U.  S.,  2(59,  286,  Sll. 
Car'rhee,  l.W. 
Carthage,  20, 47-19, 121-125, 138, 161, 174. 


Cashmere,  15. 

Cassan'der, !«». 

Castes  in  Kgypt,46,  47. 

Castile  (-te«'l'),  2)4,  2'»8,  2<W. 

Catherine  of  Aragon,  264, 288,  289. 

Catherine  HowanI,  29(»,  2}i7. 

Catherine  Parr,  25M),  297. 

Catiline,  \'X\. 

Ca'to.  12),  1*28. 

Caudine  Forks,  1  Ki. 

Cavaignac  (kil  vftN  yak).  Gen.,  400, 

40.3. 
Cawnpore,  375. 
Caxton,  William,  2.31,  2:W. 
Ce'cil,  2}»5. 

Celts,  10,  17, 119, 128,  109,  171. 
Ceylon',  2o. 

Cheerone'a,  battle,  79, 97. 
Chaldeea,  ("haldteans,  10,  1.3, 15, 17. 
Chalons  (slui  Ion),  101, 10!!. 
Champagne,  (shampftne).  Counts  ot 

1!K>. 
Champlain',  1-Jike,  .3.31,  4-20. 
Champlain',  Samuel,  .3.31,  ;m. 
Charlemagne.    Hee  Rom.  Emperors 

of  the  West. 
Charles  Martel',  180,  IW. 
Charleston.  U.  s.,  42:^,  424. 
Charter,  The  Great  (Magna  Charta), 

22(i,  2:5.3. 
Charterhouse,  Monks  of,  290. 
Chau'cer,  249,  2'i2. 
China,  S,  2()J»,  220,  221, 223,  253,  277,  329, 

•■ms,  .-{74,  425. 
•Christians  under  Maslem  rule,  185, 

.•«)9,  411-11.3. 
Christians  under  Roman    Empire, 

14.3,  145,  149,  152-1.55,  102,  107. 
Cicero,  1.3.3,  137,  \m. 
Cilicia,  Cillcians,  21,  i;i3. 
Cimbri,  131. 

Cimme'rians,  Crimeans,  21. 
Ci'mon,  72, 73. 
Cities,  7,  168,  210,  217,  2;^. 
Civil  War  in  England, 310;  in  Amer- 
ica, 42:M25. 
Clement  V.,  Pope.  21.5,  2:«i. 
Clement  VII.  Pope,  272,  27.3,  289. 
Clients,  Roman,  107,  110,  11.3,  128. 
Clisthenes  (dl'sthenes),  07. 
Clive,  Robert,  .37.3,  .377. 
Clotil'da,  109,  170,  172. 
Clo'vis  (Chlcxlwlg),  \m-\Tl\  Succes- 

.sors  of,  170,  17;i,  179,  180. 
Cnidus  (ni'-),  58,  77. 
Col'bert  (-b^r),  :«2,  .353. 
Coligny  (ko  leen'ye),  282,  286,331,334. 
Colise'um,  144. 
Colom'bia,  S.  A.,  420,  421. 
Col'onies,  Ancient,  48,  .54,  62,  88, 118, 
Colonies,  Mmlern     European,  328- 

*r),  .3(.-J-:i<>l.  :r75,  ;W5,  .'{78. 
Columbus,  Christopher,  25.5-250. 
Commerce,  W  19-'2:{,  'ik\,  48.  64, 100, 175, 

209,  21.5-217,  25.3,  2>5,  29.3,  :i0.3,  ;i72-374. 
Commonwealth,    English,   310-^12, 

319. 
Conde  (con  d&')|Priuce  of,  282, 286, 35L 


(4W> 


Con 


INDEX. 


Eng 


Constance,  Peace  of,  214;   Council 

at,  243,  24,5,  271. 
Con'stantine,  Grand  Duke,  398. 
Constantino'ple,  154,  161, 170, 174, 175, 

179,  18(J,  194,  195,  204,  207,  209,  221,  222, 

273,  m~,  412. 
Constantius,  Caisar,  153. 
Consuls,  Roman,  107,  116-119, 123, 133, 

134,  140,  170. 
Corday,  Charlotte,  382,  393. 
Cor'dova,  180,  183. 
Cor'inth,  59,  103,  136,  159. 
Cor'inth,  Congresses  at,  79,  94. 
Corinthian  War,  76,  77. 
Coriolanus  (coriola'nus),  113,  114. 
Corneille  (kor  nal'),  355. 
Cornelia,  130. 

Corn  Laws  in  Eng.,  ;^-367. 
Cornwallis,  Lord,  364. 
Coronse'a,  battles  at,  74,  77. 
Cor'sica,  122, 12:^. 
Corun'na,  battle  at,  389. 
Cossacks,  21,344. 
Covenanters,  ::«)9-311. 
Cranmer,  289-292. 
Crassus,  Rora.  Consul,  133, 134. 
Crecy  "kra  se),  227. 
Crete,  .55, 181,  215,  367. 
Crime'a,  21,  96, 138,  341,  367,  368. 
Croats,  323. 
Croe'sus,  21,  24,  58. 
Cromwell,  O.,  310-312,  318, 319. 
Cromwell,  R.,  312. 
Cronstadt    (cron'stat),    in    Russia, 

Croto'na,  89. 
Crusades,  20;3-212. 
Ctes'iphon,  150. 
Cuba,  256,  427. 
Cullo'den,  battle  at,  361. 
Cunax'a,  defeat  of  Cyrus  at,  37. 
Custozza  (koos  tod'za),  407. 
Cyc'lades,  (X). 
Cynoceph'alee,  102. 
Cy'prus,  32,  77,  210,  215,  412. 
Cyrus  the  Younger,  36,  37,  41,  88. 


Dacia,  144, 149. 

Damas'cus.  20, 178, 212. 

Damiet'ta,  207,  208. 

Danes  in  England,  195,  201. 

Dan'te,  216,  248,  251. 

Danton',  :382,  383. 

Dantzic,  388. 

Danube,  34,  131,  141,  152,  159,  222,  3C6, 

412. 
Dark  Ages,  167, 168,  187,  213. 
Darnley,  H.  Stuart,  Lord,  293. 
David,  26;  descendants  of,  15,  27. 
Decius,  Consul,  116. 
Delaware  Bay,  335;  river,  331,  333; 

State  of,  3:5.5. 
Delhi,  221,  372,  375. 
Delos  Island,  59,  72. 
Delphi,  57,  58,  60,  71. 
Deme'ter  (Ceres),  56,  57,  62. 
Deluge,  Flood,  9, 13, 21. 

(438) 


Demos'thenes,  79,  83, 102. 
Denmark,  Danes,  194,  195,  272,  322, 

;«(),  337,  ;i;i9, 406. 
Det'ting-en,  battle  at,  361. 
Diets  of   the  Einpire,  186,  190,  207, 

271,  325. 
Dionys'us,  57,  87. 
Directory,  French,  384,  385. 
Dorians,  58-65,  81. 
Dorylse'um,  battle  at,  £04. 
Dow'lah,  Surajah,  373. 
Dra'co,  65. 

Drake,  Francis,  293,  294,  297. 
Dublin,  310,  415. 
Dunbar,  battle  at,  311. 
Dunkirk,  312,  313. 
Duquesne  (kane'),  Fort,  362. 
Dutch,  301-303,  311,  312,  328,  331,  333. 


East  India  Co.,  English,  307,  372-375, 

377,378;  Dutch,  335. 
Ebro  (a'bro),  123, 185. 
Ecbat'ana,  31,  33. 
Edinburgh  (-boro),  311,  361. 
Edward,  Black  Prince,  227,  228. 
Eg'mont,  Count,  300. 
Egypt,  Egyptians,  10-12,  25,  32,  33,  36, 

37,  42^2,  94-102,  206,  207,  385,  418. 
Egypt,  Greek  Rulers  of :  Ptolemy  I. 
(B.  C.  323),  98-101,  105. 

Ptolemy  IL  (28;3),101. 

Ptolemy  III.  (247-222),  101. 

Cleopatra  (51-30),  101,  102,  137. 
El'eanor  of  Aquitaine,  232,  234. 
Electors,  German,  242,  246,  266,  276, 

322,325,362. 
Eleusinian  Mysteries,  57,  75. 
E'lis,  59. 
Elizabeth,  Electress   Palatine,  308, 

317. 
England,  .English,  169,  195-198,  201, 

202,  225-23;^,  287-297,  306-319,  352,  354, 

360-378,  411-415,  425. 
England,  Sovereigns  of: 


Saxon  Line. 

Alfred  (A.  D.  871-901),  195,  201,  249. 
Ethelred  II.  (J)78-1016),  195. 
Edward  the  Confessor  (1042),  197, 

202. 
Harold  II.  (1066),  197,  202. 

Norman  Line. 

William  I.  (1006),  197,  202. 
William  II.  (1087),  197. 
Henry  I.  (1100),  197,  198. 
Stephen  (1135),  198,  225. 

Plantagenets. 

Henry  IL  (1154),  198,  225,226. 232,  234. 
Richard  I.  (1189),  206-209,  212,  226. 
John  (1199),  206,  22<),  2;«. 
Henry  III.  (1216),  226,  233,  235. 


Eng 


INDEX, 


Fra 


inslaad  (Plantageuets  continued); 
Edwanl   I.   (iLTi),  20«,  iJii,  303. 
Kdwaul  II.  (l.JOT),  227. 
Kdwiml  III.  (l:«7),  227,  228,  240. 
Klchard  11.  (13n),  228,  ^. 

House  of  Lancastkk. 

Henry  IV.  (1399),  228,  229. 
Henry  V.  (1413),  229,  237,  238. 
Henry  VI.  (1422),  229-231,  238. 


IIorsK  OK  York. 

Edward  IV.  (14tU),  2:30,  231,  233. 
Edward  V.  (148.3),  2:il. 
Itichard  III.  (1483),  231. 

TUDORS. 

Henry  VII.  (1485),  2:J1,  255,  287,  296, 
Henry  VIII.  (1509),  2(M,  206,  267,  275, 

287-291. 
Etlward  VI.  (ir>17),  290,  291. 


Mary  I.  (ir>;)3),  288,  291,  292. 
Elizabeth  (loo8),  282, 291-295, 


(1558) 
Stuarts. 


300, 332. 


James  I.  (1603),  306-308. 
Charles  I.  (16'i>-1618),  308-310. 
Charles  II.  ( 1(M>0),  810^14. 
James  II.  {Um),  314-316. 

{William  HI.  (,1088),  315,  316,  338, 
353. 
Mary  II.  (1688-16W),  315,  316. 
Anne  (1702),  316,  317,  360. 

House  of  Brunswick 

George  I.  (1714),  360,  361. 

George  II.  (1?27),  mi,  362. 

George  III.  (1760),  362-365,  387,  428. 

George  IV.  (1820),  365. 

William  IV.  (18:30), IMJ,  371. 

Victori!)  (18:37),  ;366,  :367,  371,  ;376. 
English  Language,  172,249. 
Epaminon'das,  78,  82- 
Eph'esus,  159. 

Erie,  Luke,  battle  on,  420,  428. 
Ethio'pia,  11,12,.50,  5L 
Etrus'cans,  106,  lOH-UO,  112-111, 117. 
Eudes  ((Jdo),  C't  of  Paris,  19!(. 
Eug'enie,  Empress,  408,  409. 
Eugenius  IV.  Pope  (1431),  244. 
Euphrates  (euphnVtes),  7, 10,  14,  15, 

21,26,32,141,1.^1,1.52. 
Eurip'ides,  87, 
Europe,  8,   16,  17,  26,  65,  96,  158-161, 

h)7-17.\  18.5,  et<;. 
Bux'ine,  See  lilack  Sea. 
Evesham,  battle  at,  22«}. 
Eylau  (i'low),  battle  at,  388. 
Ezra,  28. 


(4^) 


Fa'biua,  Rom.  Dictator,  124. 
Fairfax,  Eng.  Gen.,  310, 318. 

FareUlUrelO,272,278. 

Fawkes,  (iuy,  ;W. 

Fenelon  (ft'u't'ion).  :355. 

Ferrara  der  rii'ni),  Council  at, 244 

Ferrara,  Um'C'e,  Duchess  of,  279. 

Feudal  System.  188,  189,  205, 209. 

Fijiiiv- jr-'i  ls.,:{/6. 

Fire  ot  London,  ;3i:3. 

Fisher,  Hishop  of  Rochester,  290. 

Flodden,  battle  at,  28«. 

Flor'ence,  21(i,  219,  2.51,  264,  268. 

Foix  dwii),  (Jaston  de,  2<»6. 

Fontenaye'  battle  at,  187. 

France,  French,  1  l.j,  160, 170,  179,  180, 

187,  1!».V2()8,  227-232,  2;M-241,  251,  274, 

2S0-28<),  :i{0,  -XW,  :M4-360,  379-410. 
France,  Rulers  of: 

Hugb. Capet  (-ptV)  (A.  D.  987),  199. 

Robert  tbe  Pious  (996),  199. 

Henry  I.  (10:31),  200. 

Philip  I.  (1060). 

Louis  VI.  (1108),  234. 

Louis  VII.  (11.^),  206,  225,  232,  234. 

Philip  II.  (1180),  206,  226,  234. 

Ix>uis  VIII.  (122:3),  2:35. 

Ix)uis  IX.  (1226),  208,  235,  2:39,240. 

Philip  IIL  (1270),  2:35. 

Philip  IV.  (128.5),  236,  2i0. 

Louis  X.  (1314),  236. 

Philip  V.(i:316),  236. 

Charles  IV.  (1X22),  236. 

Family  of  Valois. 

Philip  VL  (1328),  227,  236,  240. 
John  (ia50),  227,  228,  237. 
Charles  V.  (1364),  2:37,  241. 
Charles  VL  (1.380),  229,  2:37. 
Cbarles  VII.  (1422),  229,  230;  237,  238, 
241.  n       ,        >        y    ^ 

Louis  XI.  (1461),  238,  239. 

Charles  VIII.  (148.3),  239,  254, 263-265, 

268. 

House  of  Orleans. 

Ix)uis  XIL  (1498),  265,  266,  280. 
Francis  I.  (151.5),  266,  267, 269, 280, 28L 
Henry  II.  (1.547),  281,  286. 
Fnineis  II,  (1.5W),  281,  282,  286. 
Charles  IX.  (1.560),  282,  28.%  286. 
Henry  HI.  (1574),  283,  28i. 

Family  of  Bourbon. 

Henry  IV.  (1589),  282,  284,  286,  W8, 

:349. 
Ix)uls  XIIL  (1610),  349,  .3.50. 
Louis  XIV.  (1643),  .315,  316,  331,  341, 

35O-.3.V1. 
Louis  XV.  (171.5),  .3.55-,3.57. 
Ix)ui8  XVL  (1774-179:3),. 3.57, .379-382. 
Louis  XVII.  (King  only  In  name). 

National  Convention  (1792),  381-SM. 


Fra 


INDEX. 


Ham 


France,  Rulers  of  (continued): 
Directory  (1795),  384,  885. 
Three  Consuls,  N.  Bonaparte,  First, 
(1799),  385,  38(i. 

P'lKST  Fkench  Empire. 

Napoleon  I.  (1804-1814),  386-^92.   See 
Boivaparte. 

Bourbons  Restored. 

Louis  XVIII.  (1814),  384,  391,  398. 
Charles  X.  (1824),  391,  398. 

Second  House  of  Orleans. 

Louis  Philippe  (1830),  398,  399. 

Second  French  Republic. 

Louis  Napoleon   Bonaparte  Pres. 
(1848),  400,  401,  403,  404. 

Second  French  Empire. 

Napoleon  III.  (1852-1870),  405-409. 

Third  French  Republic. 

A.  Thiers,  President  (1871).  409-411. 

P.  McMahon,  President  (1873),  405, 
408,411. 

Gr6vy,  President  (1879),  411. 
Franche     Comte    (froNsh  kON  ta'), 

(County  of  Burgundy),  352. 
Franco'nia,  188,  190, 192. 
Frankfort-on-the-Main,  325,  395. 
Franks,  1.54,  159,  160,  169,  170, 184-189, 

191,  192.  236,  353. 
Frederic,  Elector  Palatine,  308,  318, 

322,  325. 
Fremont,  General,  423. 
French  Revolutions,  357,  373, 379-385, 

395,  398-400. 
Friesland  (freez'-),  300. 
Friuli  (free  oo'Ie),  188. 
Fronde,  The,  a51,  358. 
Fulton,  Robert,  421. 


Gaeta  (ga  a'ta),  401. 

Games,  Greek,  59,  85. 

Ganges  River,  7,  374. 

Gardner,  Bishop,  292. 

Garibaldi  (-bal'de),  401,  406. 

Gates,  General,  364. 

Gaul,  Gauls,  114,  117,  123,  124,  IM,  ia5, 

159,  168. 
Gaza,  206,  385. 

Gerablours  (zhoN  bloor'),  301. 
Gene'va,  278,  279,  425. 
Generhis  Khan,  208,  220.  223. 
Gen'ba,  215,  224. 
Georgia,  362. 


German'icus,  Rom.  General,  142. 
Germany,  Germans,  8,  17,   134,  142, 

145,  147,  148,  151,  15.5,  158-161,  169-17-'], 

180. 
Germany,  Kings  of,  become  Roman 

Emperors,  184-193,  213,  214,  242-24G. 
Germany,  Rise  of  Cities  in,  185,  216, 

217. 
Germany,  Language  and  Literature 

of,  248,  li49. 
Germany,    Reformation  and  Wars 

of  Religion  in,  270-278,  320-,325. 
Germany,    Wars    of   Austria    and 

Prussia.  341-345,  407. 
Germany,    Wars   with    Napoleon, 

386-395. 
Germany,  Revoluions  in  (1848),  400, 

401. 
Germany,  Unification  of,  406-409. 
Germany,  William    I.  Emperor  of 

(1871),  409,414. 
Gettysburg,  battle  at,  424. 
Ghent,  299,  301 ;  Treaty  of,  420. 
Ghib'ellines,  212,  213,  216, 251. 
Gibral'tar,  3.54. 
Girond'ists,  381,  382.   ' 
Gladstone,  Hon.  W.  fe.,  414,  415,  417. 
Glencoe,  Massacre  at,  316. 
Godfrey  of  Bouillon  (boo  eel'yoN'), 

204,  205,  211. 
Good  Hope,  Cape  of,  48,  255. 
Goths,  1.52,   158-163,  167.   170-174,   179, 

186. 
Grac'chus,  Tiberius,  129,137. 
Grae'ehus,  Caius,  130, 137, 138. 
"  Grand  Alliance,"  The,  316. 
Granicus  (granl'cus)  River,  battle, 

37,  94. 
Gran  son',  battle  at,  239. 
"  Great  Powers,"  Five,  .369,  396;  Six, 

412,413. 
Greece,  Greeks,  9,  LS,  17,  21,  84-.38,41, 

48,  52-105,  125,  135,  159,  196,  365,  397, 

398,  413. 
Greece,  Kings  of: 

Otho  of  Bavaria  (18.32),  398,  402. 

George  of  Denmark  (1863),  403. 
Gregory  III.,  Pope,  184. 
Gregory  VII.,  Pope,  190, 191.  193. 
Gregory  XI.,  Pope,  21.5. 
Guadalupe  Hidalgo,  Treaty  at,  423. 
Guel'ders,  298,  3.52. 
Guelfs,  212-216.  2.51. 
Guin'ea,  293. 
Guiscard',  Robert,  196. 
Guiscard',  Roger,  196,  197. 
Guise  (geez),  Houseof,  281-285;  Dukes 

of,  282-286;  Mary  of,  281. 
Gunpowder,  209,  220,  253,  263. 
Gutenberg,  John,  254. 


Haarlem,  Siege  of,  300. 
Hadriano'ple,  battle,  1.59. 
Halicarnas'sus,  .58,  87. 
Ham,  Hamites,  10,  42. 
Hamathites,  21. 
Ham'ilcar,  123, 126, 127 


(440) 


Ham 


INDEX, 


Jew 


Hampden,  John,  .m),  31K. 

Hannibal,  \Z\-V2>^. 

Hanover,  Klcct<>rutt>  aiul  KinK*I<»n, 

:{(Mi,  :>('•<;.  ;{S7;  House  of,  in  Kngland, 

.•{17.  .•««>-,-Ui7. 
Hanseatic  L»»amu',  Tho,  217.  '2I1>. 
Hapsburgs,  House  of  Auslrhi,  211, 

21S,  215I. .:»:.,  2(r7,  2i>s,  ;{2o-;J2;"i,  ari,  :{i}>, 

;U).  .'5.VJ,  ;{S<!,  ;MHi,  I(H»,  4(»7. 
Haroun  »1  Uasclit«l,  ISO,  183, 18«. 
Harrison,  (Jon.,  42(),  428. 
Has'drubal,  liS,  128. 
Hastings,  battle  of,  li>7,  2()2. 
Hastings,  Warren,  'Xl\  ;J77,  ;i78. 
Havana  diavji'na),  ,%"2. 
Hebrews  (Israelites,  Jews),  H,  12, 15, 

l!»-.{»», ;«,  44,  47,  49,  57,  141, 148,  149,255, 

411. 
Hecatee'us,  S7. 
Hector,  55. 

Hegira  ih^j'ira),  178,  182. 
Heliop'olis,  45,  4(5. 
Helle  nes,  5;{,  56,  58.    See  Greeks. 
Hellespont,  -S^y-h,  94,  101. 
Helots,  M,  <>8,  7:i-75. 
Henrietta  Maria,  Queen,  3aS. 
Henry  the  Navigator,  2.>8. 
Herculaneum,  144. 
Her'cules,  54. 

Herman  (Arniinius),  142, 147. 
Her'mes,  5(»,  62. 
Herod'otus,  S7. 
Heroes,  ( ireek,  54-56,  (Jl. 
Herzegovina  (hf^rt  ze  go've  na),  412, 

4i;i. 
Hesiod,  S.5,  86,  92. 
Hestia,  .5«»,  62. 

Hil'debrand.    See  Gregory  VI T. 
Hindustan  ihindustan').  See  India. 
Hit'tites,  21. 

Hohenlinden,  battle,  385. 
Hohenstaufeni-sto\v'l'en),213,214,24fi. 
Holland,  JJlS-.KJ.j,  311,  352-354,  364,  38  J, 

.•ftHi,  .-HtS. 

Holland,  Wm.  I.,  king  of,  396. 
'•  Holy  Alliance,"  The,  396,  397. 
Holy  Land.    See  Palestine. 
Homer,  .>>-59,  6(5,  84-86,  92. 
Hong  Kong,  374. 
Horace,  I^atin  Poet,  141. 
Hortensius,  Laws  of,  117. 
Ho'rus,  51. 
Hos'pitallers  (Knights  of  St.  John), 

2(1.'),  21(1,  2.UJ,  272,  -Wt,  :{2t;. 
Howard,  Lord,  of  Hflini^hara,  294. 
Howe,  Ijord,  Eng.  Gen.,  iiM. 
Hudson,  Henry,  :«1, 335;  River,  312, 

.•i.51,  .•{.{.-),  421. 
Huguenots,  282-2^,  308,  331,  434,  .118- 

li-yi,  ;i>{. 
Hungary,  Hungarians,  185,  222,  272- 

271),  321,  ;i22,  :il3,  4O0,  407. 
Huniades  (-yii'daz),  222. 
Huns,  l.")9,  161,  H>J,  18.J,  188. 
Huron,  Ijike,  3:^1. 
Huss  ihooss),  Hussites,  243-246. 
Hyder  .Vli  (Ji'lee),  373,  378. 
Hyrca'nua,  i:J3. 


Ibe'rians,  17. 128. 

Iliad,  TluN  5.5,  66,  92,  87,  317. 

Illinois',  -m. 

Illyr-icum,  IllyrlanH,.1«.  135,  171. 

Images  in  Cliurclics  Wt^r  for,  175, 
177,  178,  1.S4. 

India,  s,  lo,  U,  1.5,  20,  .32,  ;i4,  52,  96,  97, 
220-224,  .328,  ;«52,  .{?2-.-|75. 

Indians,  N.  Am.,  *2;V'),  2:59,  330,$!!, 334, 
:{;{.'),  362,  ;W2,  42.5,  42«J. 

Indieo,  Kast  and  West,  255,  .'i02,  .303. 

Indus  l{iver,7,  1.5,96. 

Innocent  111.,  Pope,  '207,  226,  '£i\. 

Inquisition,  Flemish,  25K>,  ;«J0. 

Inquisition,  Spanish,  2.54,  255. 

lonians,  17.  58-60,  (;{,  8.j,  87. 

Ipsus,  battle  at,  5W. 

Ireland,  16,  '225,  25M,  307-311,  815,  816, 
;tt)7,  41.5. 

Iroquois,  (Ir  o  kwii),  .431,  .334. 

Isabella,  "Archduke,"  ;}0'2. 

Isabella  of  France,  Q,ueeu  of  Eng- 
land, 227. 

Israql,  Israelites.    See  Hebrews. 

Israel,  Jeroboam,  I.,  King  of,  '27. 

Issus,  battle  at,  .37,  ft5,  97. 

Italy,  Italians,  17,  21,  48,  .5.3,  .58,  KKJ, 
114-118,  131,  1.3.5,  151,  161,  1(58,  170-17.5, 
l.Sl-l!K),  m\,  21.'i-218,  2«J;i-267,  281,  .'ftiO, 
319,  .3.55,  ,*J84,  385,  395,  396,  400,  401,  40,5- 
407,  410. 

Italy,  Kings  of: 
Victor  Emanuel  I.  (1861),  405-107, 

410,  416. 
Humbert  I.  (1878),  410. 

Iturbide  (c  toor  be'da),  421. 

Ivry  (e  vre').  battle  at,  348. 


Jackson,  Gen.,  420, 429. 
Jacobins,  Fr.  lladicals,  381-383. 
Jacobites,  Eng.  and  Scotch  Tories, 

'.m. 

Jacquerie  (zliak're),  228. 

Jaffa  Jopi)a),  2(Ki,  207,  385. 

Jamaica,  311,  IMJ. 

James,  Duke  of  York,  312,  313,  335. 

See  Entjbmd,  Kings  of,  Jew.  //. 
Jamestown,  •{07. 
Jane  (Jrey,  2!>1,  297. 
Jane  Seymour,  2<H(. 
Janizaries,  222,  221. 
Japan',  8,  22.3,  '277,  3*29,  423. 
Japhet,  9,  21. 
Jason,  ■>'). 

Jefferson,  Thoma.s,  420.428. 
Jeffreys,  Kng.  Judge,  315. 
Jena  i  va'na  >,  .{87,  ;W. 
Jerome  of  I'ra^^ue,  *243,  246. 
Jerusalem,  12,  20,  2(>-28,  100,  1,33,  144, 

148,  Hi),  20.V208,  211. 
Jerusalem,  Kings  of: 

(iodfrev  (10f>!»,  2(M,  *20.'),  211. 

Baldwin  I.  (1100), '20.5. 

(iuv  of  Lusignan  tll8(»-1192),  206. 

Frederic  IL.  Emperor  (1229), '208. 
Jesuits,  '276,  277,  321,  '.i2M,  .m. 
Jews,  172,  2.55.    See  Hebrews. 


(441) 


Joa 


INDEX. 


Mar 


Joan  of  Arc,  229,  230,  241. 
John  of  Austria,  ;^1,  821. 
John  of  Gaunt,  '-^^H,  '■^^. 
John  XXIII.,  Pope,  248. 
Juarez  (wa'rathe),  Mex.  Pres.,  400. 
Judse'a,  Kingdom  of,  100,  120. 
Judah,  Kingdom  of,  12,  27. 
Judah,  Kings  of: 

.I(),siali,Zedekiah,27. 
Judas  Maccabai'us,  100, 105. 
Jugurtha,  i;^),  131. 
Julius  II.,  Pope,  265,  266. 
Junot  (zhu  no'),  J«8,  889. 
Jupiter,  62,  108,  120,  151. 


Karnak,  47. 

Kearney  (kai-'-).  Gen.,  423. 

Kep'ler,821,326,327. 

Kiev,  194,  847. 

Kirke,  Eng.  Col.,  315. 

Koran,  178, 182. 

Koscius'ko,  345,  347. 

Kossuth  (kosh  shoot'),  Louis,  400. 

Koster,  Laurence,  254. 

Kot'zebue,  397. 

Kublai  Khan,  221,  223,  224. 


Lacedee'mon,  54, 58. 

"  Ladies'  Peace,"  The,  267. 

La-fa-yette',  3a),  392,  393. 

La  Fontaine',  355. 

Lancaster,  House  of,  229-231,  287. 

La  Salle,  881,  334. 

Las  Casas  (cas'as),  256,  257,  259. 

Lat'imer,  Bishop,  292. 

Latin  Language,  168, 186,  247,  248. 

Latium,  Latins,  106,  112, 115-118. 

Laud,  Archbishop,  309. 

Laws,  Roman,  114,  171,  173-175,  248. 

League,  The,  of  French  Nobles,  283, 

848-;«0. 
Learning,  168,  180,  247-254. 
Lebanon,  Mt.,  20,  29,  209. 
Legnano  (If  n  ya'no),  214. 
Leipsic  (Ilpe'),  battles  at,  323,  391. 
Lemnos  IsL,  77,  80. 
Leo  I\^,  Pope,  181;  X.,  Pope, 2G6, 267. 
Leon'idas,  35,  71. 
Leonine  City,  181,  410. 
Lepanto,  battle  of,  321,  326. 
Lep'idus,  136, 137, 146. 
Leuc'tra,  battle  at,  78. 
Leuthen  (loi'ten),  348. 
Lexington,  battle  at,  363. 
Leyden  (ll'dn),  Siege  of,  800. 
Liberals  in  Europe,  396-401. 
Libraries,  12,  66,  98,  100,  101,  185,  249, 

252. 
Licinian  Laws,  115, 119. 
Lincoln,  Abraham,  423,  424. 
Literature,  10,  12, 13,  84-93, 96-103, 141, 

168,  248-252,  295,  317,  351,  355. 
Livy,  Rom.  Historian,  141. 
Locke,  John,  314. 
Lo'di  (-de),  battle,  384. 
Loire  (Iwar)  River,  169,229. 


Lollards,  229. 

Lombardy,  Lombards,  131,  170-173, 

184,  185,  196,  214,  215,  265. 
London,  217,  291,  302,  810-313,  367. 
Londonderry,  Siege  of,  315. 
Lome,  Marquis  of,  427,  429. 
Lorraine,  187, 285, 350, 409, 410 ;  Dukes 

of,  204,  281,  342. 
Louis  of  Nassau,  Count,  300. 
Louisiana,  881,  419. 
Lou  vols  (loo  vwii'),  353. 
Low  Countries.    See  Netherlands. 
Lowositz,  battle,  343, 
Loyola,  Ignatius,  276,  277. 
Luck  now,  Siege  of,  375. 
Lusita'nia  (Portugal),  126. 
Luther,  270,  271,  277,  278. 
Lutherans,  321. 
Lutzen  (loot  zen),  battles  at,  324,  336, 

890. 
Luxemburg,  Province,  352. 
Luxor  Palace,  47. 
Lycur'gus,  6,8-6,5,  67,  68. 
Lydia,  Lydians,  21-24,  82,  36. 
Lydia,  Kings  of: 

Ardys  (B.  C.  678-629),  21. 

Croesus  (,560-546),  21-24,  58. 
Lyons,  145. 
Lysim'achus,  99. 


Maca'o  329. 

McMahon,' Marshal,  405,  408,  416. 

Macedonia,  Macedonians,  35,  38,  78, 

79,  94-105,  124,  125,  132. 
Macedonia,  Kings  of: 

Philip  II.  (B.  C.  ,8,59-aS6),  78,  79,  83. 

Alexander  (;S36-,323),  90,  94-98, 105. 

Cassander  (31-5-296),  99. 

Pliilip  V.  (220-178),  102, 103. 

Perseus  (178-167),  103. 
Madrid,  ^m. 

Magdeburg,  Capture  of,  323. 
Magellan,  256. 
Magenta,  battle,  405. 
Magi,  Magian,  31,  .83,  34. 
Magnesia,  Rom.  victory  at,  125. 
Magyars,  188,  189. 
Maine,  County  of,  France,  207,  2,32. 
Main  tenon  (maNt  noN'),  Mme,  3.53. 
Malek  Shah,  208. 
Malplaquet  (-pla  ka'),  354. 
Mal'ta,  210,  ,320,  326. 
Mamelukes,  208,  209,  385,  418. 
Mandeville,  Sir  John,  249,  252. 
Manlius  Titus,  116. 
Mantine'a,  battle,  78. 
Maoris,  876,  378. 
Marat  (ma  ra'),  ,382. 
Mar'athon,  .8;5,  70,  80,  85. 
Marco  Polo,  221,  223,  224. 
Mardo'nius,  'M>,  72. 
Marengo,  battle,  385. 
Margaret  of  A  njou  (iiN  zhoo'),  230. 
Margaret  of  Navarre,  272,  279. 
Maria  Leczin'ska,  .356. 
Maria  Louisa,  Empress,  389. 
Marian  Party  (Rom.,)  132-134. 


(442) 


Mar 


INDEX. 


Nin 


Marie  Antoiiitittc,  a')7, 380-882, 
Marienburg   (iiui  rO'uii  boorg),    210, 

.{10. 

Maritcnano  iina  n'n  yii'iio),  2(kJ,  278. 
Manas,  Ciius,  i;ja-i;fc». 
MarlborouRh,  Duke  of,  .'{1(5,  .'117. 
Marlborough,  Durhess  of,  .UCJ,  .{17. 
Mar.s,  R  mm.  «<m1  of  war,  02,  108. 
Marseilles  (-sfilz'),  274. 
Marstou  Moor,  buttle,  310. 
Mnrylaud,  '{{2. 
Massachusetts,  XtJ,  303. 
Mas -5111011  \\\\\\  seol  .von'),  ;i5o. 
Matilda  of  Knulaii(l,l!»S. 
Maurice  of  N.issau,  ;U)2,  .m. 
Mazarin  U'»ii  zii  niN'),  .i^'J,  351. 
Mazzini  (inat  sO'ne),  401. 
Mecca,  ITS,  i,S2. 
Mecklenburg,  .tSJ. 
Me'dia,  M.'drs,  12, 13,  31,  40,  70. 
Me'dia,  Kinj^s  of: 

ryaxart's(M.  0.6.34),  13. 

-Vstyayi's  (.YM-^'jJMl),  13. 
Medo-Persian  Empire.   See  Pei-sia. 
Medici  lined T'  chr'),  21(j,  2W. 

tatluTlne  du',  281,  284,  285. 

Cosmo  de',  216, 

John  de'.    See  Leo.  A',  Pope. 

Lorenzo,  21(5,  249,  252. 

Marie  de',  ;}4J). 
Medina  ima  de'na),  178, 182. 
Mediterranean  Sea,  10-12,  19,  26,  29, 

.10,  ;».-).  101,  i:{.3,  141,  179,  181,  217,  235, 

274.  275.  .{.yi,  113. 
Mehemet  All  (a'lee),  418. 
Melbourne,  -'176. 
Memphis,  42,  46. 
Menela'us,  ■")'). 
Menschikofif,  Prince,  SiO. 
Mentz,  242,  .32.1 
Mesopotamia,  18,  29, 144, 150. 
Messenia,  Messeniaus,  o8,  73,  78,  86. 
Messiah  born,  141. 
Metel'lus,  Consul,  122. 
Metz,  2S1,4(>.S,  409. 
Mexico,  2-)ti,  294,  406,  421,  422. 
Mexico,  Maximilian,  Emp,,  406,  416. 
Michigan,  420. 
Middle  Ages,  8,  167. 
•'  Middle  Kingdom,"  187,  238. 
Milan,  l-V?,  KK),  189, 214, 215, 2frl-267, 406. 
Miletus,  .{.3,  8.S. 
Miltiades,  70,  79,  80. 
Milton,  John,  314,  319. 
Minor'ca,  3')4. 
Mississippi  Kiver,  257,  331,  356,  a57, 

420,  424. 
"  Mississippi  Scheme,"  355,  356. 
Mityle'ne,  7.5, 88. 
Modena,  40.5. 

Mogul  ?:mpire,  221,  .TTi,  375. 
Mohacz,  battle,  273,  279. 
Mohammed,  178,  181,  182. 
Mohammedans,  177-18.3,  222,  274,  275. 
Moldavia.    See  Roumania. 
Moliere  (mo  le  er'),  ;i5.5. 
Mongols,  Mongolians,  .30,220-224,337. 
Monmouth,  Duke  of,  314, 315. 


Montebel'lo,  battle,  405. 

Montene'gro,  412,  41.3. 

Monterey \  UK),  422. 

Montfort,  Simon  de,  persecutes  Al- 

bl  gen  SOS,  2^1"). 
Montfort,   Simon    <le,   Son,    leads 

Knglish  liarons,  220. 
Montpensier  (moN  poN  sC  ft),  Duke 

of, :{!«». 
Montreal',  .►{O. 
Moore,  Sir  John,  389. 
Moors,  42,  ■2.>l,  2-56. 
Morat  (-rii'l.  battle,  239. 
More,  Sir  Tliomius,  290. 
More'a,  21.5. 
Moreau  (-r(V),  .38.5. 
Moscow,  .390. 
Munich,  34.3. 

Munster,  (miinster).  Treaty  at,  825, 
Munychia  (-nlk'ia),  77. 
Murat  (mil  rJi'),  :W8. 
Myc'ale,  buttle  ut,  72. 


Nancy  (noN'sS),  battle,  239. 
Nantes,  Kdict  of,  331,  ,'M9,  ;i50, 353. 
Nantes,  Executions  at,  384. 
Naples,  171, 189. 
Naples,  Kingdom  of,  189, 197, 2^37, 2.54, 

2«;3-2»>"),  aV),  -.m. 
Naples,  Queen  Joanna  of,  2:17,  240, 

211. 
Nar'ses,  174. 
Nase'by,  battle  at,  310. 
Navarino  (nii  vtl  ri^no),  battle,  360, 

:m. 
Navarre,  (-vtlr') ,  208, 2.54, 286. 
Navarre,  King  Charles  of,  2:i7,  240. 
Navarre,     King     Henry     of.     See 

Frunce,  Kings  of,  Henry  IV. 
Necho,  44. 

Nelson,  Admiral,  38.5-3S7,.3ftl. 
Netherlands,  187,  217,  2:58,  239,  24.5, 

2.54.  -JOI,  27(i,  293,  2f)8-:{(M,  320,  .3S4,  ;»8. 
Netherlands,  Austrian,  -.IV),  :ts.5,  iWy. 
Netherlands,  Sj)anlsli,  ;5(r2,  3.51-^55. 
Netherlands,  rnited,  im,  :m,  ;£i5. 
Netherlands,  Kingdom  of,  .396,  398. 
Netherlands,  New,  .3:11. 
New'foundland,  201,  257. 
New  Jersey,  .{.31,  ;i35. 
New  Mexieo,  42:1. 
New  Orleans,  .355,  .VSO,  420. 
N  ewspapers,  •3<i2,  .Mi^i. 
Newton,  Sir  Isaac,  314,  318. 
New  York,  20'.),  .3.31, 1^1%  ;J64,  415,  426. 
New  Zealand,  ;176,  .378. 
Niagara.  ;J.34,  .%'2,  420. 
Nibelungen    (ne'ba  loong-en),   103, 

249. 
Nice  (nee.ss),  Nica''ainBith5'nla,  151, 

1.57,  IM. 
Nicopolis,  battle,  222. 
Niemen  (nee'men),  R.,  :188. 
Nightingale,  Florence,  .3<)8. 
Nile,  K.,  7,  42,  46,  51,  il.5,  207,  ;i8.5. 
Nimeguen  (ne  ma'gen),  300,  :i53. 
Nin'eveh,  Ninevites,  11, 13, 18. 


(443j 


Nom 


INDEX. 


Phr 


Nomads,  7,  25,  27,  30,  32,  34.  35,  220. 
Nordlingen  (nurt'ling-en),  324. 
Normandy,  Normans,  194-199,  202, 

207,  2;32,  8«2. 
Northmen,  188, 194, 195,  201. 
Northumberland,  Duke  of,  291,  297. 
Norway,  Norwegians,  48,  202,  337. 
N  otre  1  )aiue  (notr  diime),  382, 
Nova  Scotia,  201,  330. 
Novgorod,  194. 
Numantia,  12(5, 128. 
Numidia,  130. 


Gates,  Titus,  313. 

Octavian.     See   Roman    Emperors, 

Atif/usttis. 
Odo'acer,  161, 167. 
Od'yssey,  84,  85,  92. 
CE'ta  (e'ta),  Mt,  35,  71. 
O'glethorpe,  Gen.,  362,  370. 
Ohio  H.,  356. 
Oldenburg,  House  of,  in  Denmark, 

3;^6. 
Olga,  Queen,  of  Russia,  195, 200. 
Olym'pic,  Games,  59,  78, 87. 
Olym'pus,  Mt.,  56. 
Omar  I'asha',  367. 
Ommi'ades,  180, 182. 
Or'acles,  57,  58,  71, 109. 
Orange,  Princes  of; 

William  the  Silent,  299-305. 

Maurice,  302,  334. 

William  Henry,  315,  352,  353. 

See   England,  Kings   of,  William 

Orino'co,  R.,  255. 

Orkneys  Is.,  294. 

Orl'eans,  City,  230,  241. 

Orl'eans,  Duke  of,  Bro.  of  Chs.  VI. 
237. 

Orl'eans,  Duke  of.  Regent  of  France, 
355,  359,  360. 

Orl'eans,  Duke  of,  called  "  Ph.  Ega- 
lite,"  381. 

Orl'eans,  Louis  Philippe,  Duke  of, 
398.    (See  France,  Kings  of.) 

Orl'eans,  Duke  of.  Son  of  L.  Phil- 
ippe, 398. 

Orl'eans,  Duchess  of,  399,  403. 

Oron'tes,  R.,  21,  29,  99. 

Osi'ris,  45,  46. 

Osnabruck,  Congress  at,  325. 

Ostracism,  66,  67,  69,  73. 

Ostrogoths,  159,  170. 

Othman,  221. 

Ottawa  R.,  asi. 

Ottoman  Empire,  221,  321,  411,  412. 

Oude  (owd),  375. 

Oudenarde,  battle,  354. 

Overys'sel,  298,  352. 

Ov'id,  141. 

Oxenstiern,  324,  327,  346. 

Oxford,  University,  228,  247. 


Pacific  Ocean,  220,  256,  259. 
Padua  (pa'dua),  248,  251,  265. 


Palestine,  12, 15,  20,  25-30,  94,  95,  200, 

203-212. 
Fahuerston,  Lord,  368,  371. 
Paper  Invented,  253. 
Paphlagonians,  21. 
Paraguay,  421. 
Paris,  City,  198,  199,  229,  247,  250,  282- 

284,  348,  351,  380-385,  391,  399.  400,  404, 

408-411. 
Paris,  Treaties  of,  367,  362,  405. 
Paris,Counts  of,  188, 189. 
Parliament,  English,  226,  233, 306-317, 

360,  363,  367. 
Parma,  405. 

Parma,  Alexander,  Duke  of,  301,  302. 
Parma,  Margaret,  Duchess  of,  299. 
Parthia,  Parthians,  32,  99,  100,  134, 

136,  145,  150,  151. 
Pascal,  355. 
Patricians,  Rom.,  107-115,   118,   119, 

129. 
Pausa'nias,  72,  81. 
Pavia,  171, 173, 1&5, 267. 
Peasants,  188,  200,  228,  236,  271. 
Pekin,  221. 
Pelas'gi,5;^,  109. 
Pelay'o,  179, 183. 
Peloponnesian  War,  74-76,  88. 
Peloponne'sus,  54,  58,  63-65,  78. 
Penn,  William,  333,  335. 
Pennsylvania,  332,  335,  424. 
Pericles  (-clees),  73,  74,  88,  90. 
Perry,  Commodore,  420,  428. 
Persep'olis,  95. 
Persia,  Persians,  13,  31-41,  70-72,  96, 

151,  152,  155,  176,  177,  273. 
Persia,  Kings  of: 

Cyrus  (B.  C.  558),  18,  20,  24,  28-33, 88. 

Camby'ses  (529),  32,  33,  39. 

The  False  Smerdis  (522),  33. 

Darius  I.  (521),  33-35,  41,  70. 

Xerxes  (486),  35-37,  71. 

Artaxerxes  I.  (465),  36,  81. 

Darius  II.  (424),  36. 

Artaxerxes  II.  (405),  37,  76,  77. 

Artaxerxes  III.  (359),  37. 

Arses  (338),  37. 

Darius  III.  (336),  37,  38,  94,  95. 
Persian  Empire,  New,  151-155,  175- 

177. 
Persian  Gulf,  15, 19,  97. 
Peru,  256,  294,  422,  427. 
Peter  the  Hermit,  203,  204,  211. 
Petition  of  Rights,  Eng.,  308,  309. 
Petrarch,  248,  249,  251. 
Pharaoh  (title),  46,  49. 
Phid'ias,  90,91,93. 
Philadelphia,  327,  335,  364,  419,  426. 
Philip  of  Austria,  264,  268. 
Philip'pa,  Queen,  of  England,  227. 
Philippine  Is.,  256,  362. 
Philistines,  12,  26. 
Philopce'men,  103, 105. 
Philosophers,  Greek,  88-90,  93. 
Phocis,  59,  79. 
Phoenicia,  Phoenicians,  10, 12, 15,  16, 

19,  20,  23,  32,  33,  37,  46, 48,  54,  94. 
Phrygians,  21,  36. 


(444) 


Pin 


INDEX. 


Rom 


Pindar,  88. 

Pi-sis'tratus,  WMJl),  91. 

Pit'tacus,  ss,  l«. 

Pifct,  Win.,  Kuii  of  Chat  ham,  344, 382, 

.•{<t{,  .{71. 
Pitt,  Win.,  Son,  38(?. 
Pius  VII.,  Pope, ;««{,  801. 
Pius  IX.,  l»oi)C,  401,  410,  417. 
Pizar'ro,  2i')6. 
Plague  in  Ijondon,  ;113. 
PlantaK'enets,  22r>-2;W^296. 
Plnssv,  battle  at,  373,  377. 
Platae'a,  battle,  30,  ?2. 
Plato,  N!»,  JK).  ;».S. 
Plattsburgh,  battle,  420. 
Plebe'ians,  Koni.,  108,   110,    112-110, 

lis,  11!>,  i2y. 
Poitiers  (pwii  ib  ft'),  ISO,  227, 241. 
Poitou  (pwji  too'),  207,  2;i2. 
Poland,  Poles,  171,  Wn,  .3.39,  311,  .341- 

317,  3Vi,  3!)S,  400. 
Poland,  Auuustus  II.,  King  of,  339. 
Pole,  Cardinal,  25)2. 
Polk,  President,  422. 
Polycarp,  Hishop,  14.'). 
Pomerania,  'fcSl 
Pompeii  i-pri'.ve)  destroyed,  144. 
Fompey,  1.3:^-135. 
Pontius,  General,  117, 120. 
Pontus,  War  with,  131-133,  i;38. 
Pope,  Alex.,  317. 
Popes  defend  liome,  181. 
Popes,  Plurality  of,  21:3-21.5. 
Portugal,  Portuguese,  128,  255,  258, 

;^K{,  ;{:i.s,  .w*,  xw,  ;^s,  '^i^. 
Prague  ipriij?,  24;i,  244,  246,  321,  322. 
Praxit'eles,  }«0,  J«. 
Presburg,  Treaty  of,  .386,  389. 
Printing,  20f>,  231,  2:«,  2.V3,  2.>4.   " 
Provence  (-von.ss'),  184,  187, 215. 
Provence,  Language  of,  248. 
Provinces,  Roman,  12:}-126,  i;^,  141, 

144. 
Prussia,  Prussians,  210,  ;«l-34.5,  .356, 

.•My,  :«♦(),  :«)•),  396,  40G-40J). 
Prussia,  Kings  of: 

Frederic  1.  (A.  D.  1701),  .341. 

Frederic  William  I.  (171,3),  .341,  ,342. 

Frederic  II.,  the  Great  (1740-1786), 
342-;«4. 

Frederic  William   III.  (1797),  387, 
;i8s,  ;«i. 

Frederic  William  IV.  (1840),  401. 

William  1.  (lS<il),  -KW,  409,  414. 
Pultawa  (i>uitu'wa),  battle,  339,  ;M6. 
Punic  Wars,  121-r^ 
Puteoli,  1.32. 
Pyd'na,  battle,  103. 
Pyramids,  43,  61,  :«,5. 
Pyrenees,  12:i,  179,  185,  .351. 
Pyr'rhus,  117,  120. 

Quebec,  .3:W,  .331,  .356  .357,  .362. 
Queretaro  (quereta'ro),  406. 
Quito  (kr-'to),  421. 

Racine  (rii  seen'),  3S5. 
Raleigh  (ra'leigh),  293, 297,  307. 


Rsm'eses  II.,  44. 

Ra'phia,  l)attle,  12, 18. 

Ravenna,  171-174,  184,  'im. 

Raymond,  Ct.  of  Toulouse,  201,  ZW. 

Red  Sea,  19,  2«»,  2.5.5. 

Reformation,  The,  8,  270-270, 280, 200, 

2}H>. 
Reg'ulus,  Consul,  122, 126. 
Renobo'am,  27. 
Req'uesens,  'M\  :M1. 
Rheims  (reemz),  2.30. 
Rhine,  K.,  141,  142,  148,  155,  180,  218, 

.•{.5(1,  .{.Vl,  408. 
Rhode  Island,  'SH. 
Rhodes,.5.S,  210,  272. 
Rhone,  K.,  131,  169,  187,  274. 
Richard,  Prince,  208,  2:«. 
Richelieu  (reesh  le  0),  Cardinal,  822, 

.•526,  .•{.50,  .358. 
Ridley,  Hlshop,  292. 
Rienzi  (re  en'zf-),  215,  218,  251. 
Rio  Grande  42.3. 

River-valleys,  first  centers  of  popu- 
lation, 7,  \L 
Robert  of  Normandy,  1J«,  204. 
Robert  the  Strong,  198, 199. 
Robespierre,  .38'2,  .{SIJ. 
Rochelle'  .'ios,  .•i50. 
Roderick  the  Goth,  179, 183. 
Roland,  Mme,  .382.  393. 
Rollo,  19.5,  196,  199. 
Roman  Fmperors: 

Augustus,  i:{7-142,  146. 

Tiberius,  142. 

Caligula,  142,  14.3. 

Claudius,  Nero,  14,3,  148. 

Vespasian,  Titus,  144, 148. 

Domitian,  Nerva,  144. 

Trajan,  144,  149. 

Ha<lrian,  69,  144,  145. 

T.  A.  Antoninus,  M.  A.  Antoninus, 
14.5,  149. 

Com'modus,  145. 

Sept.  Seve'rus,  150. 

Caracal  la,  150, 151. 

Macrinus,  Elagabalu.s,  A.  Severus, 
1.51. 

Decius,  1.52, 156. 

Valerian,  1.52, 150. 

Aurelian,  152, 1.56. 

Diocletian  and  Maximian,  152, 153, 
1.56,1.57. 

Constantine  I.,  1.5.3,  1.>1, 157. 

Constans,   Constaniine    II.,   Con- 
stantius  II.,  Julian,  Jovian,  155. 

Valentinian,  Valens,  1.5,9. 

rheo<Iosius,  1,59,  IfiO,  1(52. 
Roman  Emperors  of  the  East: 

Arcmlius,  100,  162. 

Zeno,  161 ; 

Justinian,  174-176. 

Herneliu-s,  T^o  III.,  17.5-177. 

Ba.sil  I.,  »asil  II.,  17.5,  177. 

Constantine  VI.,  18f.. 

Alexis  Comnenus,  2<M,  212. 

Isaac  Angelus,  2C»7. 

John  Palieologus,  244. 

Constantine  XII.,  222. 


(445) 


Rom 


INDEX. 


Sch 


Koman  Eniperoi-s  of  the  West: 

Jlonorius, !«(),  1G3. 

Augustulus,  161. 
Roman  Emperors  of  the  West  ami 
Kings  of  Germany : 

Chariemagne  (A .  D.  800),  185-187, 192. 

Louis  tlie  Mild  (814),  187. 

Lotliaire  (810),  187. 

Louis  II.  (85.5),  187, 192. 

Charles  II.  (875),  187,  192. 

Charles  III.  (876-888),  198, 199. 

Conrad  I.  (911),  190, 193. 

Henry  I.  (919),  189. 

Otho  I.  (962),  189. 

Otho  II.  (973),  190. 

Otho  III.  (983),  190,  193. 

Henry  II.  (1002),  190. 

Conrad  II.  (1024),  190. 

Henry  III.  (10;«),  190. 

Henry  IV.  (10;5ft-1106),  190,  191, 193. 

Conrad  III.  (1138),  206,  212. 

Frederic  L  (1152),  206,214. 

Henry  VI.  (1191),  214. 

Frederic  II.  (1212-12,50),  207,  208,  214. 

Rudolph  I.  (1273-1292),  214,  218. 

Louis  V.  (1314),  242,  245. 

Charles  IV.  (1347),  242. 

Wenceslaus  (1378),  242-244. 

Rupert  (1400),  243. 

Sigismund  (1410),  243-245,  271. 

Albert  II.  (1438),  245. 

Frederic  III.  (1440),  245,  246. 

Maximilian  I.  (1493),  245,  246,  266. 

Charles  V.  (1519),  2&4-277,  303-305. 

Ferdinand  I.  (1.5.58),  273,  276,  272,  273. 

Maximilian  II.  (lo64),  321. 

Rudolph  II.  (1.576),  321,  322. 

Matthias  (1612),  322. 

Ferdinand  II.  (1619),  322-324. 

Ferdinand  III.  (1637),  324. 

Leopold  I.  (1658),  341,  354. 

Joseph  I.  (170.5),  a54. 

Charles  VI.  (1711),  342,  .354. 

Charles  VII.  (1742),  342,  343. 

Francis  I.  (1745),  343. 

Joseph  II.  (17r>5),  34.5,  347. 

Leopold  II.  (1790). 

Francis  II.  (1792-1806),  385,  386.    See 
Austria.,  Francis  I. 
Roman  Empire,  8, 134, 140-162, 167, 168. 
Roman  Empire  of  the  East,  160-163, 

174-177,  194,  196,  215,  221,  222. 
Roman  Empire   of  the  West,  Re- 
vived, 186-193,  213,  242-246,  32.5,  386. 
Rome   City,  42,  106-115,  130-13.5,  140, 

143, 160,  167, 181, 186,  187,  189,  202,  204, 

214,  215,  360,  401,  410,  416,  417. 
Rome,  Kingdom  and  Kings  of,  107. 
Rome,   Republic,   48,   107-137.      Re- 
vived, 184,  21.5,  401. 
Roses,  Wars  of,  2,30,  231. 
Rosetta  Stone,  102. 
Rotharis  (rotha'ris),  171, 173. 
Roumania  (roumji'nia),  149,  367,  368, 

413. 
Rubicon  R,  1,35. 
Rupert,  Prince,  310,  319. 
Bussell,  Lord  William,  314. 


Russia,  Russians,  17,  21,  171,  176,  194, 

li»5,  200,  221,  ;S37-340,  343-347,  366-371, 

3SS,  390,  396-;^98,  411-414. 
Russia,  Sovereigns  of: 

Kuric  (A.  D.  862-879),  194. 

Vladimir  (980-1015),  195. 

Yaroslav  (1019-105,5),  195. 

Ivan  III.  (1462-1505  ,  337. 

Ivan  IV.  (15,38),  ;^^7. 

Feodor  I.  (1,5^-1598),  a37. 

Michael  III.  (1613-164.5),  337. 

Feodor  II.  (167G),  338. 

Ivan  v.,  with  Peter  I.  (1682),  339. 

Peter  I.  (alone,  1689),  338-^10, 340-;«7, 

Catherine  I.  (1725-1727),  340. 

Elizabeth  (1741),  344. 

Peter  III.  (1762),  344. 

Catherine  II.  (1762-1796), 344, 345, 347. 

Alexander  I.  (1801),  388-391,  402. 

Nicholas  I.  (182,5),  367,  371,  397-400. 

Alexander  II.  (18,5,5),  368,  413,  414. 

Alexander  IIL  (1881),  414. 
Rye  House  Plot,  313. 
Ryswick,  Treaty  of,  316,  354. 


Sabines,  117. 

Sacred  War,  Greek,  79. 

Sad'owa,  battle  of,  407. 

Sages,  The  Seven,  (Seven  Wise  Men 

of  Greece),  88,  93. 
Saladin,20(>,209,212. 
Salamanca  University,  256. 
Sal'amis,  battle  of,  36,  71,  85. 
Salic  Law,  236,  240,  399. 
Salonica  (-ne'ka),  412. 
Samarcand',  180,  224,  253. 
Samaria,  28,  m 

Sam'mura'mit,  (Semiramis),  11, 18. 
Sam'nium,  Samnltes,  115-117. 
Samos,  87. 

San  Francisco,  297,  423. 
San'hedrim,  101. 
San  Stefano,  Treaty  of,  412. 
Santa  Sophia,  Church  of,  174, 176. 
Sar'acens,  175,  177-183,  196,  203,  205, 

209,  274. 
Saratoga,  battle  at,  364. 
Sardinia  Isl.,  122, 1,37.  161, 174. 
Sardinia  Kingdom,  895. 
Sardinia,  Victor  Emanuel,  King  of, 

405,  406.    See  Italy. 
Sardis,  21,,35,  41. 
Sassan'idee,  151, 174. 
Savannah  Riv.,  362. 
Savonarola,  264,268. 
Savoy,  35;^;  House  of,  401,  416. 
Saxons,  1.59,  160,  169,  185, 186, 191. 
Saxony,  Dukes  of,  189,  275. 
Saxony,  Electors  of: 

Frederic  III.,  the  Wise  (1486-1525), 
271,  371. 

John  tlie  Steadfast  (152.5),  278. 

John  Frederic  the  Magnanimous 
(1,5,32),  275. 

Maurice  (1548-1,55,3),  275,  276. 

John  George  I.  (1611-1656),  323,  324. 
Schleswig-Holstein  War,  406. 


(446) 


Sch 


INDEX, 


The 


Schliemann  (slilK''.),  Dr.,  Tv"). 
Schonbrunn,  Treaty  of,  :«SU. 
Scio,  .OT. 

Scipio,  Family,  121.  127,  128. 
Scipio  Afik-atms  .Nlajor,  124-128, 


Sparta,  Rpnrtnns,  a5,  37,  51,  61^65, 71- 

78,  m. 
Spar'tacuB,  1H2,  i:«. 
Spice  Islaixls,  .'{(Ki 
!  Spires,  Diet  at,  272. 


Scotland,  Soots,  1(5,  loJ>,  171,  220,  227,    Spurs.  Imtth' of  tlio,  2<8 


.•flK;-.U2,  ;n(5,  ;;»iy,  •■«>i- 
Scotland,  St)voroigns  of: 

James  IV.  (14881,288. 

Jainos  V.  (iril8),  281,  288,  291. 

Marv  (1.VI2),  28l,  25»1-2}W. 
Scott;  (icii.  Wlnrtold,  I2.S,  425». 
Scythians,  7,  i:{,  27,  28. ;«),  ;n,  ;U,  10(». 
SedRemoor,  battle  at,  ;}15. 
Seleucidae.    See  t^mia,  Kingx  of. 
S9poy  Hobellion,  374,  375. 
Servia,  412,413. 
Servile  War,  Kom.,  1-29,  131 
Sevasto'pol,  3(>8. 
Seven  Weeks'  War,  407. 
Seven  Years'  War,  313,  344,  .T)2,  ;^3. 
Sforza  (sfort'.sa^  Ludovico,  204,  268. 
Shakespeare,  28."),  '2S\o. 
Sheni,  Semites,  10,  UJ,  18,  21,  23. 
Ship-money,  301),  318. 


Siberia, 


;i37^:ws. 


Sicily.  4S,  51,  7o,  76,  106,  118,  121-12:], 

131,  132,161,174,  181,  214,  2:^6. 
"Sicilies,"  "  KhiK-lom  of  tiie  Two," 

11>7,  214,  215,  2.54,  .{.S.8,  406. 
Sidney,  .\lgeruoii,3I4,  ,3.3.5. 
Sidney,  Philip,  2*J5. 
Sidon,  lit,  20,  2.3. 
Silesia  (se  li'si  a),  342-,344. 
Slavonians,  Slavs,  17, 171,  185. 
Smalcald,  Le:\gue  of,  273,  278. 
Smvrna,  J»2,  14.5,  413. 
Social  War,  Greek,  78. 
Social  War,  Roman,  131, 138. 
Soc'rates,  77,  88-90. 
Solferino  (-e'no),  battle,  406. 
Solomon,  11,20,21,26. 
Solon,  51,  65-^)8,  88,  9-3. 
Somerset,  Duke  of,  290,  291. 
Soto,  Kerdinand  de,  2.57. 
Spain,  Spaniards,  17,  19,  2.3,  12.3-128, 

i;r),  1.59,  160,  \m,  170,  179-183,  185,  251- 

2.59,  mi,  ;i03,  .320,  .L'l,  .329,  .3.30,  .35;i-a58, 

388,  389,  ;«5-3}W,  44)7-411. 
Spain,  Ki!if?s  and  Queens  of: 

For  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  see  Ara- 
gon  and  Castile. 

Joanna  (1516),  2&4,  268. 

Charles  I.  (1516).     See  Rom.  Emp.  of 
West,  Charles  V. 

Philip  II.  (1.556),  276,  291-294,  299-3a5, 
.320,  348. 

Philip  III.  (I.i9l),  303. 

Philip  IV.  (1621),  349. 

Charles  II.  (1665),  a>l. 

Philip  V.  (1700-1746),  .3.54,  aS5,  370. 

Charles  IV.  (1788),  »S8,  .m 

Ferdinand  VII.  (1814),  3S8,  .391,  .396, 
.398.  \        n        ,        ,        , 

Isabella  II.  (1833-1868),  .399,  407. 
Amadeo  I.  (1870),  411. 
Alfonso  (1873),  411. 
Spanish  Succession,  War  of,  316,  3.54. 


Star  ("liamlK-r,  Kiin.  Court, :««». 
i  States  General,  French,  .•l')7,  .379,  ;i80. 
I  States  General  of  Netherlands,  298. 
I  St.  Denis,  Abbots  of,  i8J». 
St.  Helena,  Id.,  ;«>2. 
St.  John,  Knights  of.    See  JIosj>UfU- 

ters. 
St.  Lawrence  R.,  .3.34,  357. 
Stoics,  111,  14.'),  149. 
St.  Petersburg,  .m. 
»  Strafford,  Earl  of,  .309. 
j  Stralsund,  .32.3,  310. 
Strasburg,  -UJ,  409. 
Stratford  de  Re<iclitre,  Lord,  .367. 
Stuart,  House  of,  ;J0(W17,  .3<)0,  361. 
Stuart,  James  Francis  Edward,  315, 

31t),  .360,  -.Mil. 
Stuart,  Charles  p:dward,  .361. 
Sulla,  L.  Cornelius,  1.30-1*2. 
Sully,  Duke  of,  .349. 
Sweden,  Swedes,  272,  324, 331, 336, 337, 

aSO,  3JK). 
Sweden,  Kings  and  Queens  of: 
Margaret  Waldemar,  :m. 
(iustavus  Vii'sa  (l.")23),  .W5. 
(iu.stjivus  Adolphus  (1611),  323,  324, 

327,  ay.. 

Christi'na  (16.32),  .a36,  337,  346. 

Charles  X.  (16.54),  a'i7. 

Charles  XII.  (1697),  im,  .340,  346. 
Switzerland,  131, 169,  216-21«t,  272,279, 

42.5. 
Sydney,  Australia,  375,  376. 
Syracuse,  76,  81, 124. 
Syria,  Syrians,  12,  1.5,  20,  21,  37,  50,  99, 

l;{.3,  179,  2(U-20(),  208. 
Syria,  Kings  of: 

Seleueus  (B.  C.  301-280),  99,  104. 

Antiochus  III.  (22:M87),  100, 104, 125, 
126,  128. 

Antiochus  IV.  (17.5-164),  100, 104. 


Tamerlane  (Timour),  221, 224. 

Tartars,  2o:{,  208,  220,  337,  .344. 

Tasma'nia,  .376. 

Taylor^i Jen.  Zachary,  422,  429. 

Tel-el-Kebir  (ka  lieer'),  battle,  418. 

Temesvar,  battle,  400. 

Templars,  Knights,  205,  206,  210,  236, 

240. 
Teutonic  Knights,  205,  210,  341. 
Teutons,  17, 1.31, 148 
Texas,  4'22,  4*2:1. 
Thales,  88, 9.3. 
Thapsus,  battle,  135. 
Thebes  in  Egyi)t,  42,  45,  46,  .50. 
Thebes,  Tbebans,  (ireek,  61,  71,  77- 

79. 
Themistocles.  71, 80,  90. 
Theodoric  the  Great,  170, 172, 174. 
Theodosius,  General,  159. 


(447) 


The 


INDEX. 


Z^Ni 


Thermopylee,  35, 60,  71. 

Theseus  (.thes'use),  55,  61. 

Thessaloni'ca,  135, 162, 181. 

Thessaly,  3(i. 

Thiers  (te  er'),  409,  410,  416. 

Thirty  Yeai-s  War,  322-324, 327. 

Thrace,  Th racisms,  21,  35,  79,  99, 154, 

l«i(). 
Thrasybulus,  72. 
Thucyd'ides,  87,  88. 
Tiber,  U.,  106. 

Tiberias,  Lake,  battle  at,  206. 
Tientsin',  Treaty  of,  374. 
Tigris  R.,  10,  ;iS,  1.50. 
Torgau  (-gow'),  League  of,  272. 
Tories,  Eng.,  314,  3(50,  370,  417. 
Toulon  (too  Ion'),  Siege  of,  383. 
Toulouse  (too  loos'),  lt>9,  248. 
Toulouse,  Counts  of,  199,  204. 
Tours  (toor)  City,  409. 
Tours,  battle  near,  180, 184. 
Trafalgar,  battle,  386,  387,  394. 
Trent,  Council  at,  275,  276. 
Tribunes,  Rom.,  113, 115, 129,  215,  218. 
Triple  Alliance,  The,  352. 
Triumvirate,  Fii-st,  134. 
Triumvirate,  Second,  136, 137,  146. 
Trochu  (tro  shu'),  General,  409. 
Troubadours,  248. 
Troy,  Siege  of,  55. 
"  Truce  of  God,"  The,  200. 
Tudor,  House  of,  231,  287-295. 
Tunis,  208,  274,  417. 
Turkey,  Turks,  203-205.  208-211,  220- 

222,  26.5,  272-278,  337,  aiO,  367-569,  397, 

411-413. 
Turkey,  Sultans  of: 

Othman  (A.  D.  1288-1326),  221. 

Amurath  I.  (1360),  222. 

Bajazet  I.  (1.389-140.3),  221,  222. 

Mohammed  IL,  'm. 

Sol  y man  I.  (1.520),  272-274,  320. 

Sellm  II.  (1566-1.574),  .321. 

Mohammed  III.  (1.59.5-1618),  321. 

Abdul  Merljid  (1840),  .367. 

Abd-el-Aziz  (1861-1876),  411,  412. 
Tuscany,  188, 193,  40.5. 
"  Twelve  Tables,"  Laws  of,  114. 
Ty'cho  Brahe,  ,321,  326,  327. 
Tyre,  Tyrians,  19,  20,  23,  48,  95. 


Ulm  (oolm),  388. 

United  States,  105,  219,  331,  362-.364, 

374,  419-429. 
Universities,  243,  247,  218,  397. 
Urban  II.,  Pope,  203. 
Uruguay,  421. 
Utrecht,  Province,  300,  352. 
Utrecht,  Treaty  of,  317,  354. 


Valois  (val  wJi'),  House  of,  236,  280, 

284,  3.50. 
Vandals,  160, 161. 
Vauban  (vo  boN'),  aS3. 
Vaudois  (vo  dwa'),  275,  280,  311. 
Venezue'la,  421. 


Venice,  207,  215,  222,  255,  265,  3S4,  385, 

Vera  Cruz,  423. 

Verdun  (verduN'),  Treaty  of,  187,192- 

Versailles,  ;{.57,  364,  409,  410. 

Vervins  (ver  vaN'),  Treaty  of,  302. 

Vesuvius,  Mt.,  144;  battle  near,  116. 

Victoria,  Colony,  376. 

Vienna,  Austria,  145,  273,  384, 389, 395, 

100,  407. 
Vienne,  P'rance,  145. 
Villegagnon  (-gan  yoN'),  334. 
Virginia,  293,  ,332,  419,  423. 
Visconti  (-te),  215. 
Visigoths,  159, 160, 169. 
Volga  R.,  161. 
Volscians,  113, 114. 


Wales,  169, 171,226. 

Wallachia    (val  la'kia).     See   Rou- 

mania. 
Wallenstein  (-stine),  322-324,  327. 
Walpole,  Rob't,  361,  370. 
Warwick,  Earl  of,  230,  2;31. 
Washington,  Gen.,  ,362,  364,  418,426. 
Waterloo,  battle,  392. 
Wat  Tyler's  Rebellion,  228. 
Wellington,  Duke  of,  ,389,  391,  392, 

894. 
Westphalia,  Kingdom  of,  389. 
W^estphalia,  Treaty  of,  325,  350, 
Whigs,  Eng.,  314,  360. 
Wicliffe,  228,  229,  249,  252. 
W^ilberforce.  -366. 
Wilkes,  John,  ,362,  363. 
Wolfe,  Gen.,  3.57. 
Wolseley,  Sir  Garnet,  418. 
Wolsey,  Cardinal,  266,  288,  289,  296. 
Worcester,  battle  at,  311. 
World's  Fairs,  367,  425. 
Worms,  Diet  at,  271. 
Writing,  Art  of,  10,  20,  43,  54,  84, 102, 

253. 


Xenoph'anes,  89. 
Xen'ophon,  .37,  41,  88. 
Xeres  (ha'res),  battle  of,  179, 183. 
Xerxes,  3,5,  36,  71. 


York,  House  of,  2.30,  231,  287. 

York,  James,  Duke  of.  See  England, 

King  James  II. 
York,  Richard,  Duke  of,  230. 
York,  City,  1.50, 153,  309,  310. 
Yorktown,  Va.,  364. 
Ypsilanti  (ip  se  lan'te),  397,  403. 


Zama  (za'ma),  battle,  124. 
Zapolya,  John,  273,  274. 
Zealand,  224-226. 
Zend  Avesta,  38, 40. 
Zo'ro-as'ter,  31,  M,  .38,  40. 
Zurich,  272,  278. 
Zwingli,  Ulrich,  272,  278. 


(448) 


14  DAY  USE  ' 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 

EDUCATION-PSYCHOLOGY 
LIBRARY 

This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below,  or 

on  the  date  to  which  renewed. 

Renewed  books  are  subject  to  immediate  recall. 


JUL  1 1  1950 

.iirj27R;:^-)-:;PM 

'^S^^^s^!^^            "-"SS^-^ 

E  30262r 


